How did primitive man eat and where did he get the substances necessary for life?

If it was a newborn, then, of course, he received all the vital substances from mother's milk. Hunting provided meat, edible plants and spring water to complete the healthy diet. If we take a closer look at this diet, we can say that a newborn under three years old, like almost all mammals, received sterile water, fats, proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, enzymes and antibodies necessary to protect against infectious diseases with mother's milk.

In those distant times, a woman gave birth annually, and there was enough milk both for those who were born and for the smaller brothers. If, for some reason, there was no mother's milk, then the child died. Primitive man hunted mainly herbivores, which in the future were domesticated.

If primitive man did not eat meat, but only ate plant foods, then it would be practically impossible to satisfy the year-round need for well-absorbed proteins from plant foods, neither in quantity nor in quality.

But the edible organs of herbivores were saturated with fat- and water-soluble vitamins and minerals, which the animals assimilated from wild herbs that grew in abundance.

In humans today, the organs of absorption (intestines) and excretions (colon and rectum) have adapted mainly to products that can be digested "without residue" - in the stool of a healthy person, digested food is 10-15%, and the rest of the volume falls on symbiotic bacteria (30%), dead old cells, blood and bile (30%), unclaimed fats and water (25-30%). Unlike plant foods rich in fiber, meat, especially raw meat, is almost completely digested, while cellulose fiber passes through the stomach, intestines and rectum almost unchanged. Therefore, the intestines of vegetarians (herbivores) are much shorter and the elimination of waste is faster - only a few hours, while in a healthy person it is 12-18 hours. Therefore, a large amount of fiber in our diet leads to gastrointestinal disorders.

Edible plants. Nuts, berries, fruit and, to a lesser extent, honey were available for a relatively short season. They supplemented the meat of large animals and gave the hunter-nomads an opportunity to rest and gain weight for the winter. Proteins and fats were replenished by the beginning of autumn due to the abundance of fish and large poultry (pheasants, wild turkeys).

Natural water. Access to a source of clean drinking water determined the site of the tribe's camp. Underground or spring water, as it is called today, is mineral, saturated with minerals and trace elements dissolved in it.

Our distant ancestors needed solid fat protection to survive in cold weather. Subcutaneous fat replaced fireplaces and central heating. Fat protected from hypothermia, it was a reservoir of vitamins, minerals and water, in case of an unsuccessful hunt, one could easily do without food for 30-40 days, which is now called therapeutic fasting.

The accumulation of fat in the human body is a fast process, and its rational use is a slow process. These two processes were genetically, in their distant rational basis, laid down in man and became the scourge of modern man.

Since man is an omnivore, he managed to populate the entire globe, using in food everything that nature and its resources provide to him. Depending on the habitat, climate, geographic features generated different styles nutrition. Some eat animal food, others only plant foods. We are talking about the fact that nutrition should be varied, since a limited choice of a food table cannot provide the body with nutrients, which leads to metabolic disorders that affect health indicators. Vegetarians are low in fat and high in fiber, and generally have a higher risk of cardiovascular disease compared to those with high animal fat.

The uniqueness of the place that food occupies in the social and individual life of a person testifies to the selective significance of forms of eating behavior among human ancestors. As studies of the features of the structure and composition of the skeleton of Australopithecus show, traces of their activities related to the extraction of food, an increase in the proportion of the protein component in the diet was an event that contributed to the survival of the species. An increase in the proportion of protein foods automatically led to an intensification of the development of the central nervous system, especially in the early stages. individual development the individual. There are no direct indications that only hunting or only necrophagia were the dominant means of obtaining protein food (Foley, 1990; Butovskaya and Fainberg, 1993).

Hunting improved communication within society, promoted the development of manifestations of altruism. A wide variety of food sources contributed to an increase in the area of ​​food search, the development of the central nervous system, and dispersal over large areas. The earliest forms of tool activity are associated with the production of a particular type of food.

Late australopithecines, specializing in roughage, are not directly related to the immediate ancestors of Homo.

Studies of the behavior of modern primates can be used to model behavior within communities of ancestral human forms. This source indicates that the very first traditions within, which arise in primate communities, are nothing more than a certain way of obtaining and processing food.

The areas of settlement of Homo erectus within the tropical and subtropical climates coincide with those of large predators, which suggests the leading role of hunting among the most ancient people. It is assumed that the development of fire fundamentally changed human nutrition, as it introduced thermally processed food. Such food of plant and animal origin is much more high-calorie and nutritious. Anthropologists associate the enlargement of the total body dimensions of the most ancient man with a change in the diet, the further development of the brain. It is assumed that cooking was originally a female function, which significantly increased the social status of women, provided necessary (primarily vegetable) food for the least protected members of society. Thus, one of the earliest forms of gender behavior is also associated with food (Wrangham et al., 1999).

Studies of the isotopic composition of the bone tissue of European Neanderthals convincingly prove their specialization in a carnivorous diet. This source indicates that European Neanderthals (40 120 thousand years ago) specialized in hunting large land herbivores. Specialization for meat food can be seen as one of the adaptations to the cold climate of the Ice Age. On the other hand, this specialization, like any other, leaves the bearers of these traditions unprotected from abrupt climatic changes. It is possible that the extreme carnivorous specialization of European Neanderthals was one of the reasons for their disappearance (Bocherens et al., 2001).

Anatomically modern Homo sapiens, which coexisted with Neanderthal forms, probably adhered to a different dietary model. As studies of the chemical composition of the bone tissue of individuals from the burials from the Sungir settlement have shown, the people of the Upper Paleolithic used a wide range of food sources. It was not limited to the meat of terrestrial vertebrates; it included plants and invertebrates (Kozlovskaya, 2000). Significant individual variability in the concentration of chemical elements-indicators of nutrition indicates that food regulations already existed within society. As follows from the analysis of the structure of various mythologemes, concepts related to food rank among the most archaic plots and plot layers.

Judging by the data of paleoanthropology and biology of modern man, the formation of a full-fledged, varied diet was vitally important for a man of the Upper Paleolithic in connection with adaptation to cold and limited insolation. It is possible that the slowdown in the rate of individual human development, which formed in the Upper Paleolithic, was due (among other reasons) to the ability of children and adolescents to survive in conditions of a limited amount of food, primarily meat.

The study of modern tribes that have preserved the way of hunter-gatherers made it possible to distinguish two strategies of settlement associated with the peculiarities of the use of food resources. Specialized hunters for certain types of terrestrial vertebrates are characterized by high mobility of the entire population. For tribes using the diverse food resources of the landscape, it is typical for the slow development of new territories by groups that have separated from the indigenous society. For the material culture of the first, specialization in the production of hunting equipment is described. For the material culture of the latter, there are significantly more diverse forms of tool production, the development of visual activity, etc. It is obvious that in the Upper Paleolithic there were population groups, to one degree or another associated with these two described extreme options. Probably, the use of a variety of food sources can be considered as biological and social preconditions for the further dispersal of mankind in the Upper Paleolithic. The use of various types of food contributed to the complication of social behavior, the formation of the most ancient food regulations, rituals, codes, symbols.

The global ecological crisis caused by the melting of the glacier has significantly changed the use of food resources. The richest food resources are the coasts of the oceans and seas. In the most diverse parts of the world, during the Mesolithic era, societies were formed using the rich and varied resources of the coasts and shallow waters. Zoo gathering and fishing are becoming occupations that, with a minimum of danger, can provide women, adolescents, and older people with adequate food. The use of these food sources contributes to the development of settlement, the enlargement of settlements, and an increase in the number of populations.

A different way of life and nutritional structure are formed among the inhabitants of the coasts of large freshwater bodies. The study of the chemical composition of the bone tissue of individuals from the Mesolithic burial grounds of Popovo and Minino indicates the complex nature of the diet of the population, where hunting prey occupied the main or significant place, and fishing and especially animal gathering were auxiliary methods of obtaining food.

The enlargement of sites and settlements in the boreal forests occurs at a much later period of the Neolithic and Eneolithic, which is largely associated with the flourishing of fishing. A study of paleoanthropological materials from the neo-Eneolithic sites Ivanovskoe VII, Zamos'e, Sakhtysh-Pa showed that the health status and nutritional structure of males and females differed. The women's diet consisted mainly of fish. Men ate both hunting prey and fish. The frequency of physiological stress markers among the children of the Lyalovo and Volosovo populations from Sakhtysh-Pa indicates that the quality of life of boys was higher than that of girls (Kozlovskaya, 1996, 1997).

Comparison of data on the dietary habits of the Mesolithic and Neolithic populations of different climatic zones indicates the existence of a known connection between food traditions and local food resources. On the other hand, the high local variability of dietary habits, shown at the sites of Scandinavia, the Baltic States, and the North of the European part of Russia, suggests a significant influence of cultural traditions already in these epochs.

Comparison of the structure and patterns of nutrition of ancient societies of hunter-fishery-gatherers and later groups with the population of the producing economy makes it possible to judge the continuity between them. Based on these observations, an idea of ​​the deep antiquity of food traditions, dating back to the time of primitiveness, can be formulated.

Thus, the combination of plant and animal food, inherent in the early forms of the manufacturing economy of Western Asia, can be associated with the widest spread of these somehow transformed traditions in the vast territories of the Mediterranean, then Europe.

Variants of the territories of South and Mesoamerica, Southeast Asia, China, Japan are associated with a different original tradition Agriculture, more focused, firstly, on plant food, and secondly, on local water resources (fish, invertebrates).

The emergence and further development of a manufacturing economy was the largest event in human history. The question of the reasons for the origin of the producing economy is complex. In this work, it is considered only in connection with a change in the composition of the diet and the regimen of food consumption. Anthropological data indicate that the state of health, indicators of physical development, and demographic characteristics of the early Neolithic population are inferior to those of the previous time (Cohen, Armelagos, 1984). This paradoxical situation suggests that the transition to a manufacturing economy did not improve the quality of life and the quality of nutrition, in particular.

In the very general view the transition to a manufacturing economy caused an increase in the plant component in the structure of human nutrition, without introducing fundamentally new components. The emergence of durable kitchen utensils, the widespread tradition of cooking, not only change the taste, but also the chemical composition of many types of food. An increase in the proportion of plant foods also changes the amount and ratio of organic and mineral substances entering the body. The increase in the use of table salt probably dates back to the Neolithic era and may be associated with a lack of chlorine and sodium as a result of reduced sodium and chlorine intake from animal proteins. Archaeological, historical, folklore sources indicate the important place of table salt not only in the economy, but also in the minds of the ancient population. In situations where tradition or dietary composition did not promote the early use of salt, this food additive exists only in the economic sphere of society.

The ability to work hard on a daily basis distinguishes representatives of a manufacturing society from hunter-gatherers. By no means every ancient society of an appropriating economy can be regarded as the predecessor of a society with a producing economy. If we add to this evidence of the deterioration in the quality of life of the Neolithic population, then the question of the mechanisms of the spread of the appropriating economy becomes even more complicated.

The fact of an increase in the birth rate among the Neolithic population is known, which basically explains the mechanism of the spread of societies with this order. Observations of the seasonality of fertility and employment in agricultural work among the modern Ngashioka (an African tribe that retained the traditional way of livestock breeders) indicate a possible relationship between the frequency of feeding and hormonal changes in the female body. The findings suggest that female employment is associated with increased fertility (Gray, 1995). This hypothetical assumption suggests one of the possible automatic biological mechanisms that contributed to the growth of population groups with a productive economy.

The study of the biochemical composition of cereals (corn) showed that the use of a large number this culture with a lack of animal proteins can affect the human psyche. These examples show the existence of a number of automatic biological mechanisms that were triggered by the introduction of a new diet and a new way of life. The study of such phenomena is a matter of future complex work.

Chronic malnutrition combined with hard work is a typical situation in the agricultural population from ancient times until recently. Therefore, the tonic components of nutrition are of particular importance. For example, drugs, known to man from the era of primitiveness, much more intensively used by the population with a manufacturing economy, drinks containing alcohol are widespread.

The latest food specialization should be considered adaptation to dairy food. The formation of mobile pastoralist societies, which developed from the early Bronze Age, led to the emergence of a new dietary model. Milk and dairy products, as well as meat from domestic animals, take the most important place in it. The food of mobile pastoralists consists of proteins, fats and a small proportion of vegetable carbohydrates. Dairy food is distinguished by its high calorie content, saturation with available forms of calcium, vitamins, and immune bodies. The emergence of a new food system, of course, influenced the rapid growth in the number (with a low birth rate) of nomads, the flourishing of their cultures in the Eurasian steppes. The description of the features of the chemical composition of the bone tissue of individuals from the burial sites of the Bronze Age and the Iron Age shows a high local variability in nutritional traditions, which requires special attention to archaeological sources.

Later historical eras(before the onset of the era of the great geographical discoveries) did not bring significantly new ingredients or methods of cooking. However, the resettlement of population groups to new lands often posed a dilemma: to preserve their way of life and their food structure in new conditions or to adopt local traditions. In most of the cases described, the migrant population retains their farming traditions and their food habits, even if this way of life is not optimal for the given natural conditions.

The large generalization of information from sources of various sciences makes it possible to present the broad omnivorous nature of a person as one of his species characteristics, which largely determined the possibilities of his settlement, the complex social structure of society. Nutrition from an evolutionary factor is transformed into one of the methods of social and biological adaptation, itself affects the biological, psychological, behavioral patterns of a person. Food systems are at the core of major regional cultural traditions.

The height of social status is invariably correlated with the peculiarities of nutrition, cooking is becoming an art no less appreciated than music and painting. The birth of French court cuisine in the 17th century. in the heyday of absolutism - a vivid example of this. Bria-Savarin, the famous French culinary specialist, allows himself the phrase: "The discovery of a new dish contributes more to the happiness of the human race than the discovery of a new star" (Michel, 2002, p. 199).

Review questions

• 1. How is the instability of human conditions expressed?
• 2. What edible plants were used for food in the Upper Paleolithic?
• 3. What effect does natural water have on human health?
• 4. How did primitive man eat?

In a somewhat simplified form, the nutritional evolution of ancient primates, hominids, and ancient humans can be represented as follows. The most ancient primates of the Paleocene (66-58 million years ago) occupied one of the ecological niches characteristic of insectivores. By the end of the Paleocene, about 58 million years ago, many species of primates already had a dentoalveolar apparatus adapted for a mixed diet, which, in addition to insects, also included fruits, foliage, seeds and fruits.

A series of global cold snaps in the interval from 20 to 5 million years ago led to a reduction in the area of ​​tropical forests. Australopithecus, who found themselves four million years ago in the open spaces of the savannah, were omnivores, and the path to food specialization was already cut off for them: evolution cannot "reverse". Meanwhile, the structure of the dentoalveolar apparatus, the peculiarities of the biochemistry of digestion and the mode of movement allowed the most ancient Australopithecines to feed both on the plains of the arid savanna, and, possibly, on the trees of the savanna umbrella forests.

The alternation of wet and dry seasons, characteristic of the savannah, presented a serious challenge. During the wet period, plant food (fruits, nuts, seeds) was abundant, but the dry season (lasting in the savannas from two and a half to ten months) was a hungry time for herbivorous bipedal primates. During this period, it became necessary to develop new food resources, one of which was meat, although its production required high energy costs.

The earliest representatives of the genus Homo continued this evolutionary strategy. They significantly expanded their habitat, which should have led to an increase in the diversity of the diet. Apparently, the underground parts of plants: tubers, bulbs, roots, acquired an increasing importance in the nutrition of the most ancient people. This was another (besides the fall) group of products, the competition for which among large mammals is not as fierce as in other niches. Armed with digging tools, primates were able to successfully resist various species of wild pigs in the struggle for underground "carbohydrate concentrates".

But the most significant difference in the diet of Homo erectus from the Australopithecines was the constant use of fire. It is difficult to say when hominids started using fire. Judging by some data, this could have happened already 1.4 million years ago, and there is no doubt that the regular use of fire by humans goes back at least 750 thousand years. Fire opened up new possibilities for cooking. Toasting and boiling adds nutritional value to many plant foods by disengaging cellulose that is inedible to humans. Heat treatment allows you to remove toxic substances contained in the tubers of many plants or significantly weaken their effect. Smoking and browning allows food to be prepared for long-term storage.

Reconstruction of the diet of the Paleolithic population of western Europe during the last (Würm, about 15 thousand years ago) glaciation showed that Cro-Magnon communities did not lack plant food: it accounted for about 65% of calories consumed. The hunter-gatherer of that time was characterized by the consumption of a wide range of wild plants and animals (a similar trend continued in the following millennia). This provided not only a variety of flavors in food, but also a sufficient supply of vitamins, minerals and trace elements. Most of the protein was of animal origin.

In general, the consumption of fiber, calcium and vitamin C was significantly higher than that of the modern city dweller, and the intake of sodium in the body was significantly less. Sugars were also consumed much less: they were available only in natural form (with berries, fruits). Alcohol consumption was very low. Animal milk and dairy products were absent in the diet of the Upper Paleolithic man, but breastfeeding lasted for a long time: two or three years.

Animal proteins and fats were supplied by mammals, small vertebrates, fish, insects, invertebrates. The content of subcutaneous fat in the body of wild herbivores is on average 7 times less, and the content of polyunsaturated fatty acids is almost five times higher than in domestic representatives of the same species. Accordingly, even a significant consumption of animal fats by a Paleolithic man entailed a lower risk of developing atherosclerosis than a modern American or European.

Of course, this reconstruction gives an idea of ​​the diet of representatives of populations that have adapted to the conditions of only one of the biotopes. By the era of the Upper Paleolithic, humans had inhabited the most ecologically diverse regions. The diet of the inhabitants of the tropics and subtropics had to differ significantly from that characteristic of the populations of dry periglacial steppes of western and central Europe. The availability of products of river and sea origin had a significant impact.

The transition from hunting and gathering (appropriating farming) to farming (producing farming) led, perhaps, to the most significant changes in nutrition in the entire history of the genus Homo. It is especially important that this transition took place in an extremely short time interval in evolutionary terms, on the order of only ten thousand years. The advantages provided by the "Neolithic revolution" (first of all, the ability to feed one or even two orders of magnitude more eaters per unit of territory) significantly exceeded its negative consequences - even such as a general deterioration in the health of the population.

The transition to agriculture, and as a result of this, to predominantly carbohydrate food and the consumption of large quantities of cereals, led to an imbalance in the nutritional balance and, as a result, to vitamin deficiencies, iron deficiency anemia and a slowdown in the growth processes in children. The state of health of the oral cavity organs deteriorated sharply, caries spread, and the frequency of intravital tooth loss increased.

In connection with the increase in the sedentary life, the food of the Neolithic man became more and more dependent on local food sources. For example, according to studies of the Neolithic population of the Iberian Peninsula, representatives of groups that lived only 10 km from the sea coast (in fact, two hours' journey - the same time consumption as many Muscovites on daily trips to work!) Consumed algae , shellfish, crabs decreased sharply.

The transition to a much softer, thermally processed (boiled, baked) and carbohydrate food changed the direction of selection in relation to the morphological, anatomical features of the structure of our body. The powerful chewing muscles were no longer beneficial. For people of the Neolithic era, a decrease in the size of the jaws and the facial part of the skull as a whole is characteristic. At the same time, the arrangement of the teeth in the jaw became tighter, which increased the risk of caries development.

It can be assumed that the biochemistry, physiology and anatomy of the digestive tract have changed. Unfortunately, they do not survive, like bone remains, and we have no direct evidence of such evolution. But, probably, it was in the Neolithic that differences in the peculiarities of the functioning of the stomach were fixed in representatives of groups oriented mainly towards a protein-lipid or carbohydrate diet.

A total of nine plant species form the basis of the nutrition of modern societies, focusing primarily on agricultural products. Four of them (wheat, rice, potatoes, corn) account for about 75% of the food consumed (the other five are sorghum, sweet potatoes, barley, millet and cassava). Eighty percent of the animal food of the modern world population comes from beef and pork, the remaining 20% ​​comes from chicken and meat from sheep, goats, buffaloes and horses.

From the book of A. I. Kozlov "Food for People".

Introduction

I Diet of a person

in the process of evolutionary development

1.1 Main Factors Determining Diet

human nutrition

1.2 Characteristic historical periods in change

diet

II Food culture

2.1 Scientifically based principles of human nutrition

2.1.1 Balanced diet

2.1.3 Rational nutrition

2.2 The Basics of Good Nutrition

2.3 Nutrition of the future

List of used literature

INTRODUCTION

Centuries of experience show that the problem of nutrition has always been and remains quite acute. The lack of food has accompanied humanity throughout its thousand-year history. For example, in the mythology of the Indians of Central America, there was even a deity of hunger. In Greek mythology, already the first woman created by the Olympian gods - Pandora, opening the vessel handed by them, released the human vices and misfortunes contained in it, among which was hunger, which spread throughout the Earth.

If we approach the problem of nutrition from a scientific point of view, then the need for food and the accompanying feeling of hunger are one of the most significant irritants of the human nervous system inherent in it by nature. The feeling of hunger is dictated by the strongest instinct - the instinct of self-preservation. It should be noted, however, that for thousands of years, physiological expediency (usefulness) has not always been a criterion in his choice of food ration. In the struggle for survival, especially in the early stages of evolution, he often had to eat what he was able to get: as they say, “there was no time for fat, I would be alive”. However, such a life "from hand to mouth" as a whole had its positive significance for evolution. An initial abundance of food would fatally condemn humans to the stage of an appropriating economy, content with gathering, hunting and fishing.

Diet and nature of nutrition, as studies have shown Kozlovskaya MV Phenomenon of nutrition in human evolution. Abstract of the dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Historical Sciences. - M .; 2002, 30 p.

They left their significant mark both on the formation of the digestive system and on the formation of other systems of the human body and were one of the most important components of the external environment in the evolutionary development of man.

I. HUMAN DIET DURING EVOLUTION

1.1 The main factors that determined the human diet

Analyzing all the variety of factors affecting the diet from the moment of the emergence of humanoid creatures to the present, all their diversity can be reduced to three main groups of factors:

Territorial and climatic,

Socio-economic,

· Cultural and ethnic.

Before in chronological order describe the change in the human diet, it would be logical to give brief description the above groups of factors and indicate the historical stages of the beginning of their influence. Let's take a closer look at each of the groups of factors.

The first anthropoid archanthropus lived in relatively fertile climatic regions of the planet (Central and South Africa) Economic history of the world. / Under the general editorship of M. V. Konotopov, - M .: Publishing and Trade Corporation "Dashkov and Co"; 2004 - 636 p.

Their life strongly depended on the climate, therefore, migrating over certain distances and in search of food, archanthropus were nevertheless "tied" to certain fertile territories, as was the case with animals living in certain climatic zones. Their nutrition entirely depended on only one of the above groups of factors - territorial and climatic... Naturally, it was decisive for many hundreds of millennia until a person, under the influence of external influences, began to change himself and change the system of social relations with relatives.

With the advent of the tribal system, the development of agriculture and cattle breeding, people were able to accumulate surplus food. A semblance of exchange trade arose, and at the same time a gradual stratification of society into the privileged part of the clan and its ordinary members began. Accordingly, the composition and amount of food received gradually began to change in individual members of the genus. The privileged members of the genus received more refined food and more, if required. The rest of the members received on an equal footing with everyone, depending on the yield and other numerous factors attributed to the territorial-climatic group. But besides them came into effect socio-economic factors.

Much later, at the stage of the emergence of the first states, formed ethnic cultures and cult beliefs are becoming increasingly important for the diet. cultural and ethnic group factor. Its meaning was often determined by religious dogmas, although the latter in their recommendations were nevertheless based on certain practical experience, in particular, in matters of nutrition. That is, in a number of beliefs, as modern Scientific research, the recommendations had their own rationale.

At the later stages of the development of human civilization, all three factors act in close interaction, while one of them is usually singled out as dominant.

1.2 Characteristic historical periods in dietary change

As established by research Economic history of the world. / Under the general editorship of M. V. Konotopov, - M .: Publishing and Trade Corporation "Dashkov and Co"; 2004 - 636 p.

Archanthropus appeared about 2.5 million years ago. He did not differ much in his feeding habits from the great apes. Originating in the regions of Central and South Africa, he used the fruits of plants that grew during that period in the tropical climate of Africa for food. It can be assumed that these were the progenitors of such plants as peanuts, bananas, young bamboo shoots, etc. The use of animal food was not typical for that period, although some historians do not exclude the use of carrion (carcasses of small rodents and other animals). The epoch of the existence of the archantropus lasted more than 1 million years. The nature and diet of food during this period did not change significantly.

After this long period, the Lower Paleolithic period began, characterized by the appearance of Pithecanthropus, that is, the ape-man, which existed during the Lower Paleolithic (about 600 thousand years) and the Middle Paleolithic (about 200 thousand years). Pithecanthropus lived in the territories of Northern China, Europe, in the tropics of Java, the steppes of Africa. In addition to traditional plant food, the diet of Pithecanthropus included animal meat to a somewhat greater extent, since a person, having learned by that time to make various tools from stone - large choppers of the correct shape, scrapers, incisors, already had the opportunity to collectively hunt wild animals. The prey of primitive hunters were large animals: elephants, deer, bears, etc. In the Middle Paleolithic, about 250 thousand years ago (with a total duration of about 200 thousand years), the glacier advanced. At this time, there is an intensive adaptation of the human body to the harsh environmental conditions. More, than in the previous, warm climatic conditions, high-calorie food (fats, proteins) was required, the main suppliers of which were meat and and animal products. Under the influence of the climate, the nature of food and social order (the primitive communal system is replaced by the clan system), the person himself changes. In particular, the consumption of meat rich primarily in easily digestible proteins, in addition to the appearance of time for the development of a primitive similarity of crafts, contributed to significant changes in the structure of the human higher nervous system, which, according to many researchers of evolutionary processes, Kozlovskaya M.V. human evolution. Abstract of the dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Historical Sciences. - M .; 2002, 30 p.

was a significant step in the formation of “homosapiens"As a species. Engels F. Dialectics of Nature.

The gradually dying out Pithecanthropus in the Upper Paleolithic (lasting about 30-36 thousand years) is replaced by the Neanderthal. Neanderthals are exploring new areas of southern Europe, Asia, Africa. People of the Middle Stone Age pay more attention to the collection of edible plants, moreover, those that give more fruits and are easier to collect. These were the progenitors of modern cereals - wheat, barley, rice, which formed entire fields in some regions of Asia. In America, corn, legumes, potatoes, sweet potatoes, tomatoes were especially attracted, and tubers like yam or taro were especially attracted to the inhabitants of the Pacific Islands. Archaeological research has proven V.I. Khlebnikov. Modern understanding of human nutrition and medical and biological requirements for products: Lecture / Central Department Store of the Central Union of the Russian Federation. - M., 1990, 37 p.

That the most ancient type of processed food was the raw grain of millet. Somewhat later - grains of wheat and other cereals. At the same time, in the last period of the Stone Age, the Neolithic (lasting about 3-4 thousand years), hunting, gathering "appropriating" economy gradually came "producing" - agriculture and cattle breeding, and with them heat treatment of food. In the Musterier period of the tribal community (the era of matriarchy), people consciously began to use fire for cooking. The transition to agriculture and animal husbandry played a huge role not only in the social life of a person, but also in his diet. This transition was rightly called the "Neolithic revolution".

During the Ice Age, when the glacier advanced and retreated a total of 6-7 times (the last advance ended about 10 thousand years ago). Before the Great Ice Age, Europe, for example, was covered with coniferous forests, while during the Ice Age it became similar to the tundra. The nature of both plants and animals used by humans for food has changed. Ice ages lasted 100-200 thousand years. The disappearance of large animals in the Mesolithic era is increasingly used for food fish and shellfish. The sea coasts began to attract people: here in shallow water it was possible to kill big fish, catch a lot of crabs, and collect mollusks. In the more southern regions, the main food was red deer, roe deer, bison and wild boars. People also collected various seashells, shellfish and honey. Mesolithic hunters and fishermen ate almost exclusively on the meat of forest animals and only occasionally on the meat of sea birds, ducks, geese and swans. From freshwater fish, pike was mainly caught. On the coast, it happened to find whales thrown ashore - they were immediately chopped into pieces and ate. They also caught seals, cod, conger eels, crabs, sea bream, rays and sharks. By the numerous remnants of plant food, one can judge what people ate hazelnuts, water lily seeds, wild pears and berries. During the Neolithic period, man learned to cultivate cereals and raise domestic animals. With his pottery, he was able to master different ways cooking. These methods have survived to this day. We inherited the art of making soups from our distant ancestors, who knew how to boil water seasoned with various herbs by immersing hot stones in it. The earliest signs of the regular collection of wild grains are found in Palestine. They belong to the X - IX millennium BC. e. Economic history of the world. / Under the general editorship of M. V. Konotopov, - M .: Publishing and Trade Corporation "Dashkov and Co"; 2004 - 636 p.

With the appearance among the Neanderthals of primary cult beliefs, magical rites, rivalry and enmity between different communities, cannibalistic rituals could arise in individual communities. Researchers admit Kanevsky L. Cannibalism. - M. :: 2005, that Neanderthals could already believe in magical powers - the ability to influence people and animals in order to achieve the desired actions from them, the transfer of the power of a killed enemy to his winner when betraying him internal organs etc.

With the transition to a sedentary existence, the life of a person has also changed. Hunter communities were usually small, about 20 people and only grew when there was a large amount of food obtained during the hunt. Communities of farmers and pastoralists numbered up to several hundred people, since the presence of domestic animals and sown areas served as a guarantee of food supply for a long period for a large number of people. With the advent of cattle breeding, venison gradually gave way to meat from livestock: beef, pork, and lamb. Bird hunting was still an important trade - as a means of obtaining fat for lamps. The fish was used as food for humans, as well as for feed for cattle. Salmon, sturgeon and eels were smoked and dried, storing them for future use in the winter.

The emergence of metal played an important role in the life of society. It is noteworthy that the first experiments in metal smelting began with the manufacture of baked earthenware used for storing food. The first items made of copper and lead were found in the settlements of the VII-Vi millennium BC. e. The development of metals, among which were not only copper, bronze, but also gold, silver, was one of the signs of the onset of a new era. At the end of IV BC. e. The first states appear (in the south-west of Iran, and then in Egypt). These public formations have already united people not on the basis of clan, but on the basis of the territorial principle. In the basis of social progress and the emergence of states, according to scientists, lies primarily the possibility of creating sufficient surplus food products by primitive tribal communities. The surplus was enough, not only to engage in crafts, farming, construction, develop culture and religious teachings, but, most importantly, in order to sell food to neighbors. With the emergence of states, mankind entered the era of organized trade and wars. The nature of the wars was significantly different from the periodic raids on neighboring communities that took place during the tribal system. Despite the fact that the first states were formed in climatic zones favorable for food production, nevertheless, the need for long military campaigns, as well as the development of trade with distant states, contributed to the conscious production and inclusion of long-term storage products in the human diet. These were the first prototypes of food concentrates and canned food: dry bread cakes, the simplest types of dried curd cheeses, jerky and fish, dried fruits.

People learned about the intoxicating properties of alcoholic beverages long ago, no less than 8000 years BC - with the advent of ceramic dishes, which made it possible to make alcoholic beverages from honey, fruit juices and wild grapes. Probably, winemaking originated even before the beginning of cultural agriculture. Although modern science unequivocally classifies alcoholic beverages as narcotic substances, however, since alcohol as a drug has been a part of food for thousands of years, they should be considered in the food ration of mankind. Thus, the famous traveler N.N. Miklouho-Maclay observed the Papuans of New Guinea, who did not yet know how to make fire, but who already knew the techniques of making intoxicated drinks.

A significant event in the history of human nutrition should be considered the emergence of bread as a product containing in the best ratio the nutrients necessary from a nutritional point of view. Bread remains a unique product among plant foods to this day. It is not for nothing that they say: "bread is the head of everything!" The first bread was in the form of a gruel, which was first cooked in cold water, and later on hot water. The method of making bread from sour dough is attributed to the Egyptians. They learned to make sourdoughs in the 3rd century BC Bread gradually gained recognition as a product rich in essential nutrients, as well as as a product that, after drying it, could be stored fairly long time... The ability to bake bread by about 100 BC e. already spread all over the world Khlebnikov V. I. Technology of goods (food): Textbook - 3rd ed. - M .: Publishing and trade corporation "Dashkov and Co", 2005 - 427 p.

Around the same time, humanity for the first time consciously began to make alcoholic beverages. The animal and plant foods common in the Middle East differed slightly from the foods described above. In ancient Egypt, most of the food consumed consisted of cereals, mainly two-grain wheat (emmer), barley and one of the types of common leguminous wheat. The Egyptians knew how to make no less than thirty types of bread, cakes and gingerbread; they ate beans, peas and lentils. The exception was certain groups of priests who were not allowed to touch this type of food. The plant food consisted mainly of melons, lettuce, artichokes, cucumbers, and radishes. The dishes were seasoned with onions, garlic and leeks. Of the fruits, dates, figs, dumpalms and pomegranates were known. The bread that was eaten in ancient times in the Middle East was usually baked from unleavened dough, so it was tough and dry and had nothing to do with the fluffy, white, fragrant bread that we are used to. Yeast appeared in Egypt around the middle of the second millennium BC, but was rarely used. The ancient Greeks and Romans did not use yeast until the beginning of our era - until the Romans learned about it from the Spanish and Gaulish Celts, whose favorite drink was beer. Yeast was made mainly on millet. Bread made with yeast was considered a luxury. The Egyptians used various vegetable oils and animal fats, drank goat and cow milk and made cheese from it. In addition to milk, the inhabitants of the Middle East drank weak beer. Wine was also made, but it was considered a luxury item. The Egyptians sometimes used butter in ghee. They ate beef, goat, and lamb. But meat was expensive, and the poor often ate salted fish of ordinary and spicy salting, as well as the meat of wild ducks and geese, which abounded in the swampy floodplains of the Nile. In ancient Mesopotamia, meat on the table of the poor appeared even less often than in Egypt. Its inhabitants ate mainly dried, salted and smoked fish. Instead of olive oil - olives (olives) did not grow in Mesopotamia - they used sesame. But Mesopotamia abounded in fruits, and its population knew cherries, apricots and peaches in ancient times. Cereals were most often used to make stews, cereals and tortillas. The flatbreads were baked from flour mixed with vegetable oil and honey. Hard flat cakes made of tough unleavened dough were baked on hot stones, in ash, or on hot walls of ovens shaped like bee hives... Similar stoves, called tandoors, have survived to this day in Central Asia and Transcaucasia. At the beginning of the second millennium BC, they began to make something like baking trays in such ovens, on which loaves of yeast bread were planted. Almost every household had a flat clay slab with a round chimney.

Another "significant", but rather a sad event in the history of the diet can be considered the emergence of alcohol. They began to receive pure alcohol in VI- Viiin n. e. centuries the Arabs and called it "al kogol", which means "intoxicating". The first bottle of vodka was made by the Arab Ragez in 860. The distillation of wine to produce alcohol sharply exacerbated drunkenness. It is possible that this was the reason for the prohibition of the use of alcoholic beverages by the founder of Islam (the Muslim religion) Muhammad (Mohammed, 570-632). This prohibition subsequently entered the code of Muslim laws - the Koran (7th century). Since then, for 12 centuries, alcohol has not been consumed in Muslim countries, and the apostates of this law (drunkards) were severely punished.

But even in the countries of Asia, where the consumption of wine was prohibited by religion (the Koran), the cult of wine still flourished and was sung in verse.

In the Middle Ages in Western Europe, they also learned to obtain strong alcoholic beverages by sublimating wine and other fermenting sugary liquids. According to legend, the first operation was performed by the Italian monk the alchemist Valentius. Having tasted the newly obtained product and having come into a state of strong alcoholic intoxication, the alchemist declared that he had discovered a miraculous elixir that makes the old man young, tired, cheerful, yearning cheerful.

The seasonal nature of the production of plant products, as well as climatic factors affecting the yield, and ultimately the amount of food reserves, largely determined the aggressiveness of individual states or tribal communities towards their neighbors. So, neighboring with the rich Roman Empire, the Germanic tribes, who lived in rather harsh climatic conditions at that time and with limited food supplies, constantly raided for the purpose, including getting food. Ultimately, under the onslaught of various tribes of barbarians who came from the north, the Roman Empire fell in the 5th century AD. The ancient Germans and Scandinavians (Varangians or Vikings) were herders and farmers. Their wealth was measured by the number of livestock, which was used as a unit of exchange. The diet of these northern peoples was predominantly meat. In combination with the need for active physical work, this determined the constitution of the body of these peoples. They were taller, physically stronger and more resilient than their southern neighbors, the Romans. Interestingly, among the reasons for the fall of the empire, researchers also name the physical data of the barbarians.

The problem of poor harvest for the states of the middle climatic zone of Europe, in contrast to its southern regions (the so-called "cradles" of civilization), was traditionally acute. Until the XIV-XV centuries. famine has mowed down millions of people many times over. In addition, hunger was accompanied by all sorts of epidemics (hungry typhus) and other diseases that caused massive loss of life. In England, for example, in the years 1005-1322. 36 similar hunger epidemics were recorded. Only in the late Middle Agesefood grip in European countries starts donkeyato beat: the observed development of trade, the establishment of storagee grain production, improvement of transport - all this eased the fate of the population in lean years and partially saved from premature death.

The culinary art has a significant impact on the human diet during the formation of a class society. A definite, even exquisite, ceremony-like culture of eating emerges. Often, the art of cooking has a pronounced national and geographical character, that is, it pays tribute to the traditions of the epochs when the territorial-climatic and cultural-ethnic groups of factors that determined the diet were decisive. In the evolution of the art of cooking, there were both main directions and offshoots. Some of them, due to their insolvency, outlived themselves, others remained for a long time. The culinary art has always evolved under the influence of a certain, now cultural environment, as well as classes and estates. With a favorable economic situation, for wealthy groups of people it often depended on the fashion imposed by a certain social stratum, prestige or habits (sometimes petty tyranny of individuals, for example, among the patricians of the Roman Empire, nightingale tongues pate were fashionable). At the same time, as we see, the dominant is the socio-economic group of factors. Speaking about the fashion for this or that dish or drink, one cannot but touch upon the topic of alcohol, which at that time was widespread at feasts. This topic is especially relevant for Russia, since there is a widespread opinion about the national addiction of Russians to vodka since ancient times. However, the spread of drunkenness in Russia is associated primarily with the policy of the ruling classes. An opinion was even created that drunkenness was supposedly an old tradition of the Russian people. At the same time, they referred to the words of the chronicle: "Fun in Russia is drinking." But this is slander against the Russian nation. Russian historian and ethnographer, expert on the customs and customs of the people, professor N.I. Kostomarov (1817-1885) completely refuted this opinion. He proved that in Ancient Russia they drank very little. Only on selected holidays was brewed mead, home brew or beer, the strength of which did not exceed 5-10 degrees. The charka went around in a circle and from it everyone drank a few sips. On weekdays, no alcoholic drinks were supposed, and drunkenness was considered the greatest shame and sin. But until the end Xvii century, it has invariably been based on local national-cultural cuisines closely related to natural conditions of a country, with historical achievements and religious precepts of a particular people Pokhlebkin V.V. National cuisines of our peoples. (The main directions, their history and features. Recipe) - 2nd ed. rework. and add. - M .: Agropromizdat, 1991. 608 p.

... In general, in the era of class stratification, significant changes are taking place in the diets of people of different social groups. V Xvii century throughout Europe and some Asian countries, the differences between the cuisine of the ruling classes and folk cuisine are sharply marked. From now on, they differ in the amount of food, the range of dishes, the variety of their presentation and the amount of food raw materials.

With the industrialization of society at the beginning XX century, the number of rural population is decreasing. Nutrition is becoming more and more simplified and standardized. This period was called "rationalistic nutrition". It was born at the endXIXcentury in the United States and spread widely throughout the world. The bottom line was that food, in terms of raw material composition and cooking methods, should be simple and therefore consist of semi-finished products and be used cold or slightly boiled or heated. This gave the main advantage - the rapid provision of food to large masses of people at the same time with the relative cheapness of this food. The main products were canned food with plant and animal food raw materials, sausages, sandwiches and ready-made drinks, most often cold.

After World War II, the position of rationalistic nutrition was further strengthened until the 70s. In the mid-70s, with a radical improvement in international supply, the actual elimination of seasonality in food production, and a revolution in kitchen equipment, the urban population allowed a return to national sources of nutrition, more physiologically valuable in terms of the genetic disposition of the enzymatic apparatus of a particular ethnic group. Pokhlebkin V.V. National cuisines of our peoples. (The main directions, their history and features. Recipe) - 2nd ed. rework. and add. - M .: Agropromizdat, 1991. 608 p.

Currently in countries with developed economies there is a certain reassessment of values. There is a certain desire for a healthy lifestyle in general and nutrition in particular. However, the market nature of relations in most industrialized states often leads to the fact that demand generates proposals for healthy food in such an amount and in such a perverse form that it is quite difficult for an uninitiated person to understand the huge flow of information. Moreover, this information is mostly of a purely advertising nature with a minimum degree of objectivity. After all, the goal of each of the next brands that glorify this or that type of "snickers" or "hamburger" is profit, and a person is considered only as a bearer of a wallet, the contents of which attract the producers of all this nutritious food. The population is urged not to think about the benefits of this or that food product, but there is what advertising offers: "do not slow down - snickersny!" On the contrary, now, in an era of abundance of offered foods, one should pay particular attention to serious scientific recommendations in the field of nutrition. Precisely serious and balanced, and not "hasty", but fashionable.

FOOD CULTURE

2.1 Scientifically Based Principles of Human Nutrition

2.1.1 Balanced diet

This was the name of one of the first scientifically based food intake systems. The theory of balanced nutrition, dating back more than two hundred years ago, prevailed in dietetics until recently. Its essence can be reduced to several provisions:

b) food consists of several components of different physiological significance: useful, ballast and harmful;

d) human metabolism is determined by the level of concentration of amino acids, monosaccharides (glucose, etc.), fatty acids, vitamins and minerals.

Awareness of the shortcomings of the concept of balanced nutrition has stimulated new scientific research in the fields of digestive physiology, food biochemistry and microbiology.

First, it has been proven that dietary fiber is an essential ingredient in food.

Secondly, new mechanisms of digestion were discovered, according to which the digestion of food occurs not only in the intestinal cavity, but also directly on the intestinal wall, on the intestinal cell membranes with the help of enzymes.

Third, a previously unknown special hormonal system of the intestine was discovered;

And, finally, fourthly, valuable information was obtained regarding the role of microbes that constantly live in the intestine, and about their relationship with the host organism.

All this led to the emergence of a new concept in dietetics - the concept of adequate nutrition, which incorporated everything valuable from the theory and practice of balanced nutrition.

According to new trends, at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries, the idea of ​​endoecology - the internal ecology of a person, was formed, based on the assertion of the important role of the intestinal microflora. It has been proven that a special relationship of interdependence is maintained between the human body and the microbes that live in its intestines. In accordance with the provisions of the theory of adequate nutrition, nutrients are formed from food during the enzymatic breakdown of its macromolecules, both through cavity and membrane digestion, as well as through the formation of new compounds in the intestine, including irreplaceable ones. Brief encyclopedia household / Ed. Collegium: I. M. Terekhov (chief editor) and others - M .: Sov. Encyclopedia, 1984 .-- 576 p. with silt

Normal nutrition of the human body is due not to one flow of nutrients from the gastrointestinal tract into the internal environment, but to several flows of nutrients and regulatory substances. In this case, of course, the main thread nutrients are amino acids, monosaccharides (glucose, fructose), fatty acids, vitamins and minerals formed in the process of enzymatic breakdown of food. But, in addition to the main stream, five more independent streams of various substances enter the internal environment from the gastrointestinal tract. Among them, the flow of hormonal and physiologically active compounds produced by the cells of the gastrointestinal tract deserves special attention. These cells secrete about 30 hormones and hormone-like substances, which control not only the work of the digestive system, but also the most important functions of the whole organism. In the intestine, three more specific streams are formed, associated with the intestinal microflora, which are products of the vital activity of bacteria, modified ballast substances and modified food substances. And, finally, conditionally, harmful or toxic substances that come with contaminated food are released into a separate stream.

Thus, the main idea of ​​the new theory was that nutrition should not only be balanced, but also adequate, that is, appropriate to the capabilities of the body.

2.1.3 Balanced diet

Translated from Latin, the word “diet” means a daily portion of food, and the word “rational” is accordingly translated as reasonable, or expedient. Rational nutrition is nutrition of a healthy person, built on scientific foundations, capable of quantitatively and qualitatively satisfying the body's need for energy.

The energy value of food is measured in calories(one calorie is equal to the amount of heat required to heat 1 liter of water by 1 degree). Energy expenditures of a person are also expressed in the same units. In order for the weight of an adult to remain unchanged while maintaining a normal functional state, the inflow of energy into the body with food must be equal to the expenditure of energy for a certain work. This is the main principle of rational nutrition, taking into account climatic and seasonal conditions, age and gender of workers. But the main indicator of energy exchange is the amount of physical activity. At the same time, fluctuations in metabolism can be very significant. For example, metabolic processes in an energetically working skeletal muscle can increase 1000 times compared to a muscle at rest. Khlebnikov V.I. Technology of goods (food): Textbook - 3rd ed. - M .: Publishing and trade corporation "Dashkov and Co", 2005 - 427 p.

Even with complete rest, energy is spent on the functioning of the body - this is the so-called basal metabolism. The energy expenditure at rest in 1 hour is approximately 1 kilocalorie per kilogram of body weight.

At present, due to the excessive consumption of fats and carbohydrates, mainly confectionery and sweets, the caloric content of a person's daily diet reaches 8000 and even 11000 kcal. At the same time, there are observations that a decrease in the caloric content of the diet to 2000 kcal and even lower leads to an improvement in many functions of the body, provided that the nutrition is balanced and the content of vitamins and microelements is sufficient. This is also confirmed when studying the nutrition of centenarians. Thus, the average caloric content of the diet of Abkhazians living for 90 years or more has been equal to 2013 kcal for many years. An excess of food calories in comparison with the physiological norm leads to overweight, and then to obesity, when on this basis some pathological processes can develop - atherosclerosis, some endocrine diseases, etc. Nutrition can be considered rational only when it provides the human body's need for plastic (building) substances, replenishes its energy costs without excess, corresponds to the physiological and biochemical capabilities of a person, and also contains all the other substances necessary for it: vitamins, macro-, micro- and ultramicroelements, free organic acids, ballast substances and a number of other biopolymers. Since all of the above enters the human body from the outside, rational nutrition can and should be considered also as a naturally conditioned relationship between a person and the environment. But food differs from all agents of the external environment in that inside our body it becomes an internal, specific factor for it. Some of the elements that make up this factor are converted into the energy of physiological functions, others - into the structural formations of organs and tissues. The nutrition of any person should be rational, that is, reasonable and scientifically grounded, expedient. This is the ideal that can be difficult to achieve in real life, and to be completely honest, it is impossible, but you should strive for it.

The most important principle of a balanced diet is the correct ratio of the main nutrients - proteins, fats and carbohydrates. This ratio is expressed by the formula 1: 1: 4, and with hard physical labor - 1: 1: 5, in old age - 1: 0.8: 3. Balance also provides for the relationship with calorie indicators.

Based on the balance formula, an adult who does not engage in physical labor should receive 70-100 g of proteins and fats and about 400 g of carbohydrates per day, of which no more than 60-80 g of sugar. Proteins and fats must be of animal and vegetable origin. It is especially important to include in food vegetable fats (up to 30% of the total), which have protective properties against the development of atherosclerosis, lowering blood cholesterol. It is very important that the food contains a sufficient amount of all vitamins necessary for a person (there are about 30 of them in total), especially vitamins A, E, soluble only in fats, C, P and group B - water-soluble. There are especially many vitamins in the liver, honey, nuts, raspberries, black currants, cereal sprouts, carrots, cabbage, red peppers, lemons, as well as milk. During periods of increased physical and mental stress, it is recommended to take vitamin complexes and increased doses of vitamin C (ascorbic acid). Given the stimulating effect of vitamins on the central nervous system, you should not take them at night, and since most of them are acids, take only after meals to avoid irritating effects on the gastric mucosa. Khlebnikov V.I. Modern understanding of human nutrition and medical and biological requirements for products: Lecture / Central Department Store of the Central Union of the Russian Federation. - M., 1990, 37 p.

From the above, you can deduce the basic principles of good nutrition:

The first principle, rational nutrition, says that it is necessary to maintain a balance between the energy supplied with food, that is, the calorie content of food, and the energy costs of the body.

The second principle of rational nutrition is that it is necessary to maintain a balance between proteins, carbohydrates and fats and vitamins, minerals and ballast components entering the body.

The third principle a balanced diet requires a certain diet from a person , i.e. distribution of food intake during the day, maintaining a favorable food temperature, etc.

The last, fourth, the law of rational nutrition prescribes to take into account age-related needs. organism and in accordance with them to carry out the necessary preventive adjustment of the diet.

A long-term age-related imbalance between the intake of a substance into the body, on the one hand, and its decay or excretion, on the other, leads to an asymmetry of metabolism. It has been established that it is precisely age-related metabolic disorders that are closely related to the occurrence of such common diseases as excessive obesity, atherosclerosis, salt deposition, etc. That is why it is so necessary that daily nutrition provides timely and complete satisfaction of the physiological needs of the body for basic nutrients ...

2.2 The basics of proper nutrition

A food ration is a set of foods that a person needs for a certain period of time (usually for a day, for a week). Modern physiology Pokhlebkin V.V. National cuisines of our peoples. (The main directions, their history and features. Recipe) - 2nd ed. rework. and add. - M .: Agropromizdat, 1991. 608 p.

Asserts that a person's diet should contain foods belonging to all major groups: meat, fish, milk, eggs, cereals and legumes, vegetables, fruits, vegetable oil... Some food systems and the practice of religious fasts are based on the exclusion of certain foods from the diet.

The inclusion of a variety of products in daily nutrition allows the human body to be provided with all the substances it needs in optimal proportions. Better assimilated products of animal origin (see table 2.2), especially proteins. Proteins are absorbed better from meat, fish, eggs and dairy products than from bread, cereals, vegetables and fruits. For example, meat supplies protein with an optimal amino acid composition, highly absorbable iron, vitamin B12 and a number of other essential substances, while fruits and vegetables supply the human body with vitamin C, folic acid, beta-carotene, plant fibers, potassium and other substances that are missing in animal food. ... The composition of the diet affects the activity of a person, his performance, resistance to disease, and longevity. The imbalance of nutrients in the diet leads to increased fatigue, apathy, decreased performance, and then to more pronounced manifestations of nutritional diseases (hypovitaminosis, vitamin deficiency, anemia, protein-energy deficiency). Adding vegetables to meat and cereal dishes increases the assimilation of proteins contained in them up to 85-90%. Scientifically proven Kozlovskaya M.V.Phenomenon of nutrition in human evolution. Abstract of the dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Historical Sciences. - M .; 2002, 30 p.

Also, that eating habits are inherited at the chromosomal level. This is especially clearly expressed in the example of ethnic groups living in a compact territory for millennia and having a characteristic diet consisting of a relatively limited set of products (peoples of the north, inhabitants of the Polynesian islands, etc.). Attempts to switch to a more "varied" diet that is different from the centuries-old diet are always associated with adaptation processes accompanied by various diseases.

Table 2.2

Products	Percentage of assimilation
			carbohydrates
Meat, fish and products from them
Milk, dairy products and eggs
Rye bread, legumes and cereals, excluding semolina, rice, oatmeal and oatmeal
Bread from flour of the highest, 1st, 2nd grades, pasta, semolina, oatmeal, oatmeal
Potato
Fruits and berries

The traditions of food in each region have evolved over the centuries, and those that are adopted in Russia are completely unacceptable, say, on the Indian subcontinent or on the Japanese islands. In the history of dietetics, no one has sought to blindly introduce the experience and traditions of other peoples at home or unify the diet for all people, adjusting them to one size fits all. Proper nutrition for each of us, regardless of gender, age, lifestyle, etc., is such a diet that does not cause the appearance of chronic diseases, malfunction of the gastrointestinal tract, discomfort during digestion, constipation and does not lead to a delay in natural discharges of the body and its self-poisoning.

Thus, the ideal diet is one that is ideal for digestion. In the process of analyzing the main theories of nutrition, claiming to be called ideal, it was established that each of the considered nutrition theories has specific physiological grounds, which in some cases are deviations from the norm.

There is nothing ideal for humanity as a whole, since the ideal can be determined in accordance with ethnic, social, religious and personal ideas and feelings.

2.3 Nutrition of the future

According to UN data Khlebnikov V.I.Technology of goods (food): Textbook - 3rd ed. - M .: Publishing and trade corporation "Dashkov and Co", 2005 - 427 p.

In 2000, the world's population was 6.1 billion. The theoretical need for food in 2000, taking into account 10% losses during digestion and conversion (excrement), 40% losses during harvesting, storage and processing, cooking, amounted to 40 * 1012 MJ in terms of energy. With an average calorie content of 20 MJ per 1 kg of dry matter and an average moisture content of 40%, this corresponds to 3.35 billion tons of food products.

To meet a person's protein requirement, foods should contain an average of 5% protein. Theoretically, to provide the population as of January 1, 2000, 3350 million tons of food products were required. This number of products were already being developed at the end of the 70s. However, the food problem to this day remains not only quite acute, but continues to worsen. Since the mid-1970s, 50% of the population of developing countries has produced only 30% of food. At the same time, some of them are exported by these countries for export to obtain foreign exchange reserves. At the same time, industrialized countries are taking steps to restrict food production for purely economic reasons. Currently, the UN estimates that about 500 million people in developing countries are seriously malnourished. According to UNESCO, only 30% of the protein consumed by the world's population is met from animal proteins, which does not meet physiological standards. At the same time, it is noted that the possibility of expanding cultivated areas is limited. Based on this, a number of scientists believe that Malthus's theory of planet overpopulation is fully justified. However, from a humanistic point of view, this is a very dangerous delusion. This gives grounds for some radical politicians, pursuing an aggressive policy towards neighboring states, to justify their inhuman plans of mass extermination of people, often along ethnic lines. There can be no grounds for supporting Malthus's theory, and this is confirmed by the calculations of independent UN experts: by 2110, the population will stabilize at the level of 10.5 billion people.

Among possible ways increasing food production, scientists attribute:

1. Increasing the productivity of plant crops and developing new varieties of plants.

2. Use of non-traditional raw materials: for example, the use of opossum meat, lizards, snakes, raccoons, dogs, fried locusts, fried grasshoppers, termite ants (the latter after fried contain 60-65% protein!), May beetles, etc.

3. The use of artificial reservoirs for breeding productive varieties of fish, etc.

Among the many calculations of the agricultural potential of the Earth, one of the most fundamental was carried out in the 70s. by a group of Dutch scientists. They estimated the entire area suitable for agricultural development at 3714 million hectares. This is 27.4% of the total land area (excluding Antarctica), of which irrigation in the future can actually cover up to 470 million hectares of arable land. In the light of these indicators, the maximum possible biological productivity of the cultivated wedge (taking into account the limitations that the resources of photosynthesis impose on the natural process of biomass formation) was calculated in grain equivalent at 49,830 million tons per year. However, in practice, a person will always have to allocate a significant part of the cultivated area to technical, tonic, fodder and other non-food crops.

At the present stage, the emphasis is increasingly shifted to the need to raise yields in developing countries, which have the ability to rely on the agronomic and other scientific and technological achievements already available in the world. However, the very specific and still poorly understood natural background of the tropics, the extremely sensitive reaction of their natural geosystems to anthropogenic influences, the surplus of labor in the countryside of the Third World, the high energy intensity of progressive agricultural technologies - all this limits the possibilities of traditional agriculture on the path of its intensification.

There is reason to believe that good prospects are opened up by the active introduction in countries of low latitudes of the practice of second and even third crops per year, which requires first of all early ripening varieties and irrigation, if there is a dry season. Therefore, it is logical to associate high hopes with the success of breeding and genetics. An example of a breakthrough in genetics is the unexpected appearance even for specialists in the mid-60s of highly productive hybrid varieties of wheat, which served as a signal for the rapid development of the "green revolution". Although genetically modified foods that are now widely distributed can cause allergies, and subsequently other negative manifestations.

The improvement of the sectoral structure of crops, in particular, the introduction of protein-rich crops, gives considerable chances. It is known what a major contribution to the provision of high-calorie feed to productive dairy cattle breeding was made by soybeans, which became widespread in the United States.

In 1995, there were 88 low-income countries in the world where food is scarce. Of these, more than 30 in previous years, more than ј of their export earnings were directed to its purchase. It is noteworthy that these countries also include Russia, in the import of which foodstuffs consistently make up 25-30% in value.

Thus, the solution of the food problem is increasingly turning into an important component of the general issue of improving the entire system of international atpeople's economic relations.

According to the level of food security today, the following types of countries can be distinguished:

1) Major exporters food products(USA, Canada, Australia, South Africa, Thailand, and some countries of the European Union);

2) small countries actively exporting food (Hungary, Finland);

3) states experiencing a food shortage, but able to purchase it (Japan);

4) countries that barely meet their food needs with their own production (India, China, South American countries);

5) countries whose food supply has practically no effect on the global food situation (Papua New Guinea, Iceland);

6) countries experiencing food shortages and developing water and land resources to achieve self-sufficiency (Egypt, Indonesia, Pakistan, the Philippines);

7) countries with a constantly deteriorating food supply per capita (states of Africa south of the Sahara);

8) countries with an emerging food crisis in which population growth is outstripping resource opportunities (Haiti, Nepal, El Salvador).

Interesting prospects are observed in the relatively young food industry. Over the past decade, the food supplement industry has emerged as one of the fastest growing industries. The previously unknown concept of "biologically active food additives" is now familiar to almost everyone, and most people in one form or another use them in order to improve their health.

As shown by historical and medical research, and as evidenced by ancient Chinese, ancient Greek and medieval medical treatises, for many millennia food itself served as the main remedy for humans. It was with the help of various types of food that ancient people tried to regulate their health. Let us recall at least medicinal plants, most of which are edible, honey and bee products, fish oil, etc.

Khlebnikov V.I. has experience in using the therapeutic and prophylactic properties of food. Modern understanding of human nutrition and medical and biological requirements for products: Lecture / Central Department Store of the Central Union of the Russian Federation. - M., 1990, 37 p.

For at least several millennia, however, it was only at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries that folk wisdom gained the strength of scientific fact. It was then, thanks to the development of chemical science, that the so-called biologically active substances were isolated from a variety of food products, which determine the therapeutic and prophylactic effects of food.

In a relatively short time, dozens of classes of biologically active substances were isolated from a wide variety of food products, such as vitamins and vitamin-like substances, phospholipids and polyunsaturated fatty acids, amino acids, trace elements, etc. It was then that the first biologically active drugs appeared, or, as we now have them we call biologically active food additives. Biologically active substances isolated directly from food or synthesized by chemical means and, above all, vitamins, made a real revolution in medicine at the beginning of the 20th century. Many diseases that were previously considered incurable were overcome. However, starting in the 1950s, this promising direction was forgotten, since by that time the first pharmacological preparations were synthesized, which, as it seemed, were ten times more effective. Man mastered the most complex pharmacological technologies, began to create "medicines of the future" and began to look at biologically active substances of food as tools of the Stone Age. This became one of the reasons that food has ceased to be considered as a source of therapeutic and prophylactic substances, and in some 20-30 years, the human diet in industrially developed countries has changed dramatically. Most vegetables and fruits, whole grains, medicinal and spicy plants and many other products that have been used by humans for thousands of years, including in medicinal purposes... However, by the mid-1970s, it became clear that pharmacological drugs are far from so powerful. Synthetic substances alien to the human body have begun to cause a large number of complications and allergic reactions. It was found that one of the main causes of the most common diseases was a sharp change in the nature of nutrition and a deficiency of most biologically active components of food, since the traditional diet, which had developed for thousands of years, containing hundreds of different substances necessary for human life, was disrupted. As a result, a person was forced to synthesize more and more new drugs only in order to cope with the consequences of a deficiency of the most important biologically active substances, and not always successfully and often at the cost of severe side effects. To solve this problem, at the turn of the 1970s and 1980s, a new large class of therapeutic and prophylactic agents was initiated, which were called biologically active food additives.

Having considered the history of changes in the human diet in chronological order, it can be noted that the most significant events that significantly influenced the nature of human nutrition should be considered

1 The beginning of the use of animal food around 300 thousand years BC, primarily the meat of warm-blooded animals in the early stages of human formation, to a great extent predetermined the course of his evolutionary development.

2 The use of thermally processed food around 10 thousand years BC. e., which significantly influenced the further formation of the enzymatic apparatus of the person himself and allowed him to quickly and easily assimilate many types of food.

3 About 4 thousand years BC e. for the first time mankind began to use special types of food processing for their long-term storage.

4 The emergence of yeast breads about 3 thousand years BC. e. contributed to its gradual and widespread distribution throughout the planet and ranked bread among the most valuable nutrients in terms of balance.

5 The first alcohol, obtained about 1300 years ago, laid an era in the spread of the most severe forms of alcoholism, since mankind for centuries until recently believed that alcohol in moderate doses is useful and can be classified as food.

6 The expansion of trade and food storage significantly eased the danger of hunger around 700 years ago.

7 Dividing the diet by class about 400 years ago.

8 Introduction of the principles of rational nutrition about 100 years ago.

9 A significant weakening of the problem of supplying food to various regions of the planet by the mid-70s of the XX century makes it possible to have the most exotic fruits and animal products in the diet of a modern person, in whatever region of the world he lives.

10 Currently, humanity is on the verge of solving problems:

A healthy diet and still, like thousands of years ago

Food problems (threats of hunger)

LIST OF USED LITERATURE

1. Economic history of the world. / Under the general editorship of M. V. Konotopov, - M .: Publishing and Trade Corporation "Dashkov and Co"; 2004 - 636 p.

2. Khlebnikov VI Modern understanding of human nutrition and medical and biological requirements for products: Lecture / Central Department Store of the Central Union of the Russian Federation. - M., 1990, 37 p.

3. Pokhlebkin V. V. National cuisines of our peoples. (The main directions, their history and features. Recipe) - 2nd ed. rework. and add. - M .: Agropromizdat, 1991. 608 p.

4. Kozlovskaya MV Phenomenon of nutrition in human evolution. Abstract of the dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Historical Sciences. - M .; 2002, 30 p.

5. Kanevsky L. Cannibalism. - M. :: 2005

6. Engels F. Dialectics of nature.

7. Khlebnikov V. I. Technology of goods (food): Textbook - 3rd ed. - M .: Publishing and trade corporation "Dashkov and Co", 2005 - 427 p.

8. Brief Encyclopedia of Household / Ed. Collegium: I. M. Terekhov (chief editor) and others - M .: Sov. Encyclopedia, 1984 .-- 576 p. with silt

In our society, more and more representatives of various unique types of food , from vegan and raw food to fruitarian and breatharian. Naturally, this is a variety of dissimilardiets cannot leave indifferent the inquisitive mind of a person who has firmly linked his fate with a healthy lifestyle.

In this article, we will try to briefly analyze this topic in order to structure the existing food types into a single system - Hierarchy. Along the way, this article will attempt to describe the relationship between personal development and human evolution with his preferred type of diet. But first, let's figure out the terminology and define what biological evolution and the hierarchy of food types are.

Biological evolution- it is irreversible, historical development living nature, accompanied by a change in the genome of living organisms, the formation of their properties and characteristics necessary for successful adaptation to environmental conditions, as well as the gradual transformation of the entire biosphere as a whole.
A necessary and sufficient condition for evolution is a gradual change in conditions in the range of existence of a biological species. And since the chronological chronicle of our planet clearly showed that its face is constantly subject to changes, such as: continental drift, global changes in climatic conditions, various disasters on a planetary scale, then we need to understand that all living things in some foreseeable future will undergo a variety of transformations ... ( 1 , 2 , 3 )
The evolution of life is not just the experience of successful survival and adaptation of species to environmental conditions. Evolution is an ongoing process that continues in the present. To understand it, one needs to refer not only to the experience of the past, but also to take into account modern realities, to see the dynamics of this process, its horizons and prospects. And although in the modern world the environment is quite stable, humanity as a species, and man as an individual, continue to change under the influence of both external and internal factors. A simple example such a change is an increase in the average height of a person over the past few centuries, or a tendency towards an increase in body weight that has emerged in recent decades, especially pronounced in developed countries.
Currently, more than one billion adults on Earth are overweight. IN USA 66% the adult population is overweight, of which 32% are obese. In other countries, these numbers are lower, but they are also growing steadily. Having studied such an increase in indicators, the World Health Organization made a disappointing conclusion that in the near future obesity will be observed in about 40% men and 50% women all over the world. Thus, obesity has reached epidemic proportions.

Food type hierarchy is the distribution of various types of food on a conditional scale, in accordance with their evolutionary significance for the most effective survival of an individual. Per main criterion of this significance, we will take the influence of the chosen type of food onthe average life expectancy of people andthe general state of human health.

In accordance with these criteria, the scale of food types will take the following form:

1) Omnivorous- the most primitive type of human nutrition, which allows the use of any food, in any possible combination. The consequences of such a diet are the most destructive for all body systems. With a disorderly diet, people most often develop diseases that are considered the main killers of humanity ( atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, stroke, diabetes and cancer). In this regard, the omnivorous type of diet causes a very low life expectancy of those people who give preference to it.And although once upon a time, during the ice age, at the dawn of the formation of our civilization, this way of feeding helped our species survive, for the current conditions of the human environment it is clearly irrelevant and is an atavism.Therefore, from the standpoint of the evolution of modern man, he occupies - the lowest step of this scale.
2) Separate food- this type is not much different from the previous one, but it already implies some orderliness in the field of nutrition. Various principles and rules of nutrition are inherent in it, dictating in what combinations you can eat food, as well as in what conditions it should be done. People who choose this type demonstrate by their choice either concern for their own health, or respect for religious traditions. However, the real effect of preserving health, from the implementation of these rules, is small and therefore it takes the next step in this scale.
3) Vegetarianism and its subspecies: lacto-vegetarianism and ovovegetarianism, which prohibit the consumption of animal flesh, are at the third ascending stage. This type of nutrition is characterized by: a significant contribution to the preservation of human health and, consequently, a slight increase in the duration of his life. () The overwhelming majority of representatives of this type have developed a sense of compassion, mercy and care for others - certainly very valuable qualities from the point of view of the biological evolution of the species ... After all, the lack of a sense of mutual assistance among members of any community limits its development and dooms this community to rapid extinction.And this is consistent with the well-known scientific fact claiming that altruism is evolutionarily beneficial to the entire species.
4) veganism- a more ascetic type of nutrition, excluding any use of animal food, purposefully declaring the principle of non-violence, in relation to both animals and representatives of their own species.The transition to a vegan lifestyle is the most evolutionarily significant achievement for our civilization. in the field of nutrition. It is the rejection of animal food, and not some fundamental differences in the diet of plant products, that can help us as a species rise to a new stage of evolutionary and moral development. And now, with the development of science, technology and industrialization of agriculture, this opportunity is provided to mankind as never before.
It should also be noted that vegans more often than representatives of the lower steps of this scale have normal indicators: body weight, blood cholesterol levels and the general state of the cardiovascular system.
5) Vegan and raw food is a food system in which preference is given to the use of plant foods that have not been cooked. This type of nutrition allows you to achieve a noticeable rejuvenation of the body. and normalization of weight, andalmost complete disposal of all kinds of chronic diseases.
6) Fruitarianism- differs froma raw food diet by the fact that fruitorians exclude from their diet any high-protein foods (plant seeds: cereals, beans, nuts, etc.). Due to this difference, an extremely small amount of protein gets into the body of a fruitarian. And this, in turn, leads to the fact that and in the human body almost completely stop. Ultimately, such a radical change in diet has a beneficial effect on health and significantly. This important distinctive feature allows us to distinguish fruitorianism among other types of food and to attribute it to the highest level of our scale.
Of course, avoiding animal food, switching to a raw food diet or fruitorianismwill not make you a superman and will not grant instant healing from all diseases. However, aboutIt is obvious that the upward movement along this "ladder" of types of nutrition is the right path to a healthy lifestyle and thinking, which will certainly delight you with their fruits.

Bigoo

Sometimes, some people need to take a break from food altogether. E that phenomenon in easterntradition is called -, and in Christianity Fast(it is Breatharianism , Sun-eating or Prano-eating)- human existence without eating solid food. It begins from the transition to liquid food - which is characterized by the consumption of food only in liquid form. Basically, these are drinks with a high carbohydrate content: juices, compotes, vegetable decoctions, honey or sugar dissolved in water or teas, solid food is completely excluded from the diet.
As a person improves internally and successfully adapts to this type of food in hisAn interesting change is taking place in government. The physical body is, as it were, "preserved", its metabolism slows down, and special substances, the so-called heat shock proteins, are intensively produced in the tissue cells. These proteins are produced by cells under the influence of various stresses, including starvation. Their amazing function is that they protect the already existing protein molecules in cells from destruction, and also help to create the correct structures of new proteins in these cells, thereby eliminating the loss of energy and material resources.

In some cases, Bigoumay be accompanied byrefusal and from the use of liquid food, and in the most advanced form, and from water. In other words, this state is complete starvation, in which a person exists mainly at the expense of his internal resources. Active use of storage tissues by the body, as well as disposal of all kinds of depositsmetabolic by-products allow a person to restore their health and heal from a variety of diseases.
For those who hear about it for the first time, the existence of Bigo people may seem at best fantasy, and at worst - complete nonsense. However, there are officially confirmed cases when people went without food for a long time, while remaining completely healthy and functional. ( 4 , 5 , 6 )
Of course, this does not mean that such a state can last forever and a person can live without food at all. Indeed, after some time, the resources of the physical body will necessarily be exhausted, and an exhausted person will have to return to food to restore the storage tissues. But even sothe results that people get from this lifestyle are truly impressive. This is, first of all, the highest level of internal energy and hypersensitive perception. And of course, this is the saving of effort, time and money, which we all spend in huge amounts on obtaining and digesting food.

Having completed the construction of the scale of the Hierarchy of types of nutrition, we summarize: if we consider our food, the methods of its production and preparation, as one of the many environmental factors, then we need to take into account its undoubtedly significant influence on human evolution. And although at the moment Homo Sapiens is objectively the most highly developed creature on the planet, this does not mean that he has reached the limits of development.
There is no doubt that the further evolution of man as a species is possible. But in order to achieve this goal, it is necessary to overcome the inertia of the consciousness of the overwhelming majority of the population. Since the existing order of things says that man is already the ultimate goal of the evolution of life on Earth, its crown of creation.
This inertia of the consciousness of society is due to many reasons: it can also be religious prejudices; and the lack of enlightenment among the majority of representatives of our society in this matter; and exaggerated human complacency, relying on the achievements of modern civilization, so strikingly distinguish us from other species of animals.
For the latter reason, we should all be firm in ourselves. to understand what we observe happening around us: all these fruits of our civilization, this rapid progress and development of the technosphere - only illusion of human biological evolution. In fact, all of the above is an only a fleeting change in environmental conditions and nothing more. And although earlier we said that the habitat determines the evolution of the species living in it, this does not mean at all that the observed technical progress is equivalent to the evolutionary progress of the person himself.
Additionally, against the background of these reasons, another aggravating circumstance appears that inhibits the evolutionary process of our species... Remember what goals and ideals are being imposedmass consciousnessall kinds of advertising, film and video production and other instruments of influence on the human psyche.

Thanks to such processing of consciousness, in the modern system of values ​​of our society, the desire to possess all kinds of "benefits of civilization" dominates, and moral and ethical principles, concern for one's own health and personal development recede into the background. With such an orientation, the evolution of human consciousness is experiencing obvious difficulties. The mind is shrouded in a veil of false targets. And this problem cannot be solved by one cognitive and psychological approach. There is little momentary awareness of the current state of affairs. I read a book, listened to a seminar or a lecture, reflected, understood something, but after a while, I also easily returned to the previous way of life and the corresponding state of the psyche.
Only a person's reaching a new level of perception of the surrounding world, thanks to the upward transition from one type of nutrition to another, can clarify the current situation, radically change his lifestyle and inner world.
In this light, an even clearer understanding comes that both biological evolution and our individual personal growth are closely related to the choice of the type of diet. Therefore, each of us is simply vital:

- to clearly imagine the vector of evolutionary and personal development;
- come to an understanding of the importance of the role of nutrition in this process;
- empirically gain knowledge of how our food affects health
physical body, supersensitive perception and intellectual potential.

And only after that, relying on personal experience and accumulated knowledge, plan a strategy for an instant or gradual transition from one type of food to another. And although most sources recommend a gradual transition to the desired type of diet, I personally do not see any significant obstacles in order for a well-informed person to make a direct transition, for example, from an omnivorous type of diet to fruitorianism. And may the pursuit of excellence and the light of reason help you along the way. !!!

"The place of a person in life" - Branch of natural science. Squad of Primates. Class Mammals. Subtype Vertebrates. Suborder of Anthropoid apes. Type Chordates. Suborder Anthropoid apes. Research. Child of the Earth. Subclass Placental. The place of man in the system of the organic world.

"Races on Earth" - The ratio of races on Earth. Straight or wavy hair Lives in: Europe America Australia. Thin lips. Bright skin. Mestizos are descendants from marriages of the Caucasian and Mongoloid races. Caucasian race. Mulattos are descendants of marriages of Caucasian and Negroid races. Characteristic features of the race. Sambo descendants from marriages of the Mongoloid and Negroid races.

"The origin and evolution of man" - The concept of "mitochondrial Eve". The problem of the origin of the human language. Cultural history: criteria for separating humans from animals. The place of Homo sapiens in the hierarchy of the living. 1. The concept of anthroposociogenesis. Anthroposociogenesis. Modern science about the main factors, stages and patterns of anthroposociogenesis.

"Human Development" - Hypothesis. A representative of the first stage of the transformation of a monkey into a man. Construction of large industrial enterprises; educational institutions. As a result of evolution, there is a need for knowledge. The second stage is represented by the Neanderthal. Live and learn. Information transfer scheme.

"Race Biology" - Australopithecus. What miracle of nature is man? Problematic question. Desert. The first and modern people are neoanthropes. What directions in human evolution can be identified? Duration of the project. Influence of factors on the formation morphological features... The reasons for the emergence of races. Lesson Objectives: Ancient people - paleoanthropes.

"Human Development Biology" - Neanderthals. The oldest people cannibalism was characteristic. Pithecanthropus. Australopithecus. Work plan. Adaptation to the habitat. Pithecanthropus. As a result of evolution, changes occur in human food. Man is an omnivorous creature. Cro-Magnons. Pithecanthropus used fire and lived in a primitive herd.

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