Symbiosis of plants and mushrooms already exists 400 million years and contributes to a wide variety of life forms on Earth. In 1845, he was opened by German scientists. Mycorrisian endogribes penetrate directly into the root of the plant and form "fungny" (mycelium), which helps roots to strengthen the immune system, to deal with the causative agents various diseases, suck water, phosphorus and nutrients From the soil. With the mushroom, the plant uses soil resources at full power. One root would not have done such a task; Without supporting mushrooms, plants have to direct additional reserves to increase the root system, instead of increasing the ground part. Mikoriza improves the quality of the soil, aeration, porosity, and the volume of the total absorbing surface of the root of the plant increases a thousand times!

Because of the active human intervention in natural processes: the use of heavy machinery, making chemical fertilizerscarrying out construction work, gasket pipelines, asphalt and concrete, air and water pollution, construction of dams, soil treatment, its erosion, etc. - Plants began to be subjected to unprecedented stress, their immunity weakens and leads to death.

From a scientific point of view of mycorrhosis is symbiosis (by a mutually beneficial union) between the mushrooms and the roots of highly organized plants in the soil. The term "Mikoriza" (from Greek Miketa (Mushroom) and Riza (root)) was introduced by Frank (1885) to describe the relationship of two different organisms in the formation of a single morphological whole, when the plant feeds the mushroom, and the mushroom is a plant.

There are two main types of mycorrosis: ectomicorosis and endomicorosis. Extracticizes form basidial and ascomicle mushrooms predominantly in the forests of a moderate belt. This type of mycorrosis is very important for the growth of forests. Some trees, for example, pinacoidal, form only ectomicrome, and never form endomicorosis (fungal structures in the root and in its intercreasor layers).

Most. an important form Endomicrises is the so-called armbascular (tree) minecorosis (AM), called from tree threads produced by am mushrooms in cortical roots cells (Fig. 1).

Not so long ago am Mushrooms were included in the new Glomeromycota mushroom formation, which contains currently about 180 varieties. All species are symbiotes - they can be removed on the roots of living plants. AM is widespread in the world and is the most important symbiosis - the mycorrhisa mushrooms are present in all ecosystems of the globe. The successful development of more than 80% of all types of plant kingdom depends on AM.

Spores of am mushrooms in the root can only be distinguished after staining - the structures of the mushroom become blue and now they can be observed and even calculated their amount with a 50 multiple microscope increase and passing light (Fig. 2).

The outer fungal root is responsible for the reception and transportation of nutrients from the soil to the plant, and the internal structures of mycelium - for the transfer of nutrients from the fungus to the plant and photosynthesis products from the plant to the mushroom. Vesiculi - structures formed by mushrooms are organs of the accumulation of the mushroom. Lipids, reserved mushroom, are used by them during the lack of photosynthesis of the plant. The arms disputes are formed in the external mycelium, and sometimes in the roots. Disputes for a long time can live in the soil and serve as sprouts of the mushroom. For taxonomic specification of mushroom species, morphological characteristics of the dispute are often used. These processes are also mushroom mycelium and mushroom threads inside and outside the roots. The mushroom components can also live quite a long time if the pellets or root segments are protected. Spores of mushrooms develop under favorable conditions - certain humidity of the soil and temperature, and can enter into symbiosis with the growing root of the partner plant. The process of growth and symbiotic formation lasts 1-7 days. Mikoriznaya preparations Mikor-Plus contain all three sources of vaccination sprouts.

The role of mushroom in the formation of a single mass of soil

Fertile lands have a high stable moisture level in the soil. AM mushrooms can bind and strengthen the components of the soil due to the intensive development of mycelium, extracellular polymer components of mushrooms and glycoproteins known under the name Glombalin. Scientists have proven that the mineralized plants growing in the sands are five times more binding sand from the root system than plants with similar biomass, but without symbiosis with AM.

The role of am mushrooms in the absorption of nutrient components

The absorption of the nutrient elements of the soil by the plant is mainly determined by the suction ability of its root, the distribution of nutrients and the corresponding content of trace elements in the soil. The absorbency of ions with high mobility, such as NO3, depends on plant species, and low diffusion ions, for example, P, Zn, and Mo, and to a lesser extent, K, S, and NH4 + depends on the root density on Earth volume. In the latter case, the morphology of the root and the outer mycelium in am mushrooms determine the velocity of the plant elements.
Increased absorbance of nutrient elements by mycorrhisal plants, in particular, phosphates, are often associated with the accelerated development of the plant. Even if the above-ground portion of the mycorrhis plant visually did not increase in size, then it root system It becomes larger. The miticultural plant has a more balanced nutrition system that strengthens and supports it in a healthy state and increases the resistance to biotic and abiotic factors.
An increase in the rhizosphere am.
At the same time with penetration inside the roots, Am Mushrooms develop mycelium and around the roots. Internal and external gifs come into contact with a dozen connecting places on one centimeter root. In natural conditions, connecting places may be less. External mycelium can grow underground and stirrer (in the experiment, the remoteness of the fungus from the root of the plant on 8 centimeters was revealed, and it is believed that this is not the limit).
There are no information about the density of the external mycelium in Am Mushroom, depending on its remoteness from the root; Indirect measurement methods suggest that the density of mycelium reaches a maximum at a distance of 0-2 centimeters from the root. It is likely that the density of the mushroom is determined by the mushroom itself and depends on factors ambient and soil. In the untouched tropical forest, Am Mushroom gifs were discovered with a length of 5- to 39 meters / ml, and in the subtropical ecosystem of the dunes, the average value was 12 m hymicals / g soil. On one centimeter of the grafted root, the unioles of the messenger counted 200-1000 m of the Gifs of the Mushroom, and the mushroom biomass on one gram of dry matter of the tropical soil was 0.03-0.98.
Thanks to the outer fungnye, the contact of the root with the medium in which it grows has increased significantly. Taking into account that 1 cm root without mitride can interact with 1-2 cm of soil volume with the help of root hairs, it is possible to potentially calculate the increase in volume with an external mycelium 5-200 times, considering the radial spread of gifs in am mushrooms around the root. Increasing the rhizosphere soil volume to 200 cm, it is rather an exception to the rules, whereas 12-15 cm3 of the soil volume per centimeter of the gravy root is already a common phenomenon.
Moreover, mycelium Am Mushroom turned out to be more resistant to abiotic stress, such as drought, toxicity and soil acidity than the root itself. The plant in symbiosis with the mushroom remains closely with a soil for a longer time than a plant without such symbiosis. The life expectancy of external mycelium is unknown, but it was found that the percentage of active external mycelium sharply decreases after 3-4 weeks after the first grafting of the plant.

Micor- Plus - innovative Product, Environmentally friendly natural preparation, organic plant growth regulator. Micor- Plus is a granular sycredical drug. These are disputes of endomicorizic mushrooms (families Glomus), prisoners in 3-5 mm perlite granules (carrier).

Symbiosis is a long-term cohabitation of organisms of two or several different species Plants or animals, as well as plants with animals, when their relationship with each other is very close and mutually beneficial. Symbiosis provides these organisms better overcoming adverse environmental impacts and especially better food. This article describes the symbiosis in the plant world.

In tropical countries there is very interesting plant - Mirmekodia. This plant is an anthill. It lives on branches or trunks of other plants. The lower part of its stem is highly expanded and is like a large bulb. The whole bulb is permeated by canals communicating with each other. The ants are in them. Channels arise in the process of developing a thickened stem, and they are not thrown by ants. Next, ants get from the plant a ready-one housing. But the plant brings the benefits living in it.

The fact is that in the tropics there are ants-leaforesis. They bring great harm growing. In Mirmekodia, ants of another species are settled, who are warring with ants-leafy. Guestrooms of Mirmecodia are not allowed to leave Listorezov to her top and do not give them a loss of her gentle leaves. Thus, the plant provides an animal room, and the animal protects the plant from its enemies. In addition to Mirmekodia, many and other plants in the collapse with ants are growing in the tropics.

There are even closer forms of the sim-biosis of plants and animals. Such, for example, symbiosis of single-cell algae with amoebas, soils, infusories and other simple animals. In the cells of these animals, green algae is settled, for example ZOO Bohlorella. For a long time, the green calves in the cells of the simplest animals were considered the organ-noises of the animal himself, and only in 1871, from the known Russian botanist L. S. Tsakovsky set-novil, that this is nothing more than the cohabitation of the simplest organisms, subsequently named Symbiosis.

ZOOOHLORELLA, living in ameb cell, is better protected from adverse external influences. Before it is eating any other animal, it should overcome the co-contrassion of the amoeba. The body of the simplest belly is transparent, so the process of photosynthesis proceeds from algae normally. And the animal receives from algae soluble photosynthesis products (mainly carbohydrates - SA-HAR) and feed on them. In addition, during photo-synthesis, algae is distinguished by oxygen, and the belly uses it for breathing. In turn, the animal provides algae necessary for its nutrition by nitrogenous connections. Mutual benefit for animal and plants from symbiosis is obvious.

Not only the simplest single-celled animals, but some multicellular, adapted to symbiosis with algae. The algae is found in the cells of Hydra, sponges, worms, iglozzy and mollusks. For some animals, symbiosis with algae became so necessary that their body cannot develop normally, if there are no algae in its cells.

Symbiosis is particularly interesting when both of his participant are plants. Perhaps the most striking example of symbiosis of two growing organisms is lichen. Lichen is perceived as a single organism. In fact, it consists of a mushroom and algae. The basis of its composition is the intertwing gifs (threads) of the fungus. On the surface of the lichen, these gifs are intertwined tightly, and in a loose layer under the surface among the hyphal, algae nests. Most often it is unicellular green algae.

Lishens are less likely with multicellular blue-green algae. Cells of the pre-soles are braided with gifs mushroom. Sometimes even suckers are formed on the gifs that are pro-either inside algae cells.

The cohabitation is beneficial and mushroom, and algae. Algae gets water from the mushroom with solutions-ren mineral salts and protection against drying. And the mushroom receives from algae or-ganic compounds produced by it in the process of photosynthesis, mainly coal water.

Symbiosis helps so well lichens in the struggle for the existence that they are able to set on sandy soils, on bare, fruitless rocks, on glass, on sheet gland, i.e., where no other plant can exist. There are lichen nicknames in the extreme north, on high mountainsIn the deserts - if only there was light: without the light of alga, the lichen can not absorb carbon dioxide and dies.

The mushroom and alga died so much in Li-Cheynik, they are a single organism, which even multiplies them most often together.

For a long time, lichens were taken for ordinary plants and attributed them to MCHAM. Green cells in the lichen were taken for chlorophil-catch grains of green plants.

Only in 1867, such a glance was stoleb-flashed by the research of Russian scientists A. S. Famintsyna and O. V. Baranetsky. They managed to divide the green cells from the Licheney of Xanology and establish that they may not only live outside the body of the lichen, but also to multiply-smiling and disputes. Consequently, green lichen cells are independent water-groa.

Everyone knows, for example, that the omnipot wiki needs to look where the aspen is growing, brezovuki - in birch forests. It turns out that hats mushrooms grow near certain trees not by chance. Those "mushrooms" that we collect in the forest are only fruit bodies. The very same body of the mushroom - Gribnitsa, or mycelium, lives under the ground and is a filamentous hyphae, penetrating the soil (see Art. "Mushrooms"). From the surface of the soil, they stretch to the tips of the shag roots. Under the microscope, it can be seen like a hy-fium, as if felt, the root tip will flourish. The symbiosis of the fungus with the roots of higher plants is on mycorrhism, which means "Mribocornal".

The overwhelming majority of trees in their latitudes and a lot of herbaceous growing (including wheat) form with Mikariza gri-bami. Scientists have established that the normal growth of many trees is impossible without the participation of the fungus, although there are trees that can develop and without them, for example, birch, Lipa. The symbiosis of the mushroom with a higher plant existed at the dawn of ground flora. The first top races are psulobitis - already had underground bodies, closely related to gifs of fungi.

Most often, the mushroom only flies the root with their hyphae and forms a case, as if on-rifted root fabric. More easily there are forts of symbiosis when the mushroom is set in the root cells themselves. Especially brightly, such symbiosis is expressed in orchids that cannot develop without the participation of the fungus.

Science has not yet found out completely than the symbiosis is beneficial for mushroom and plant. It can be assumed that the fungus uses for its nutrition, apparently, carbohydrates (sugar), I will be depressed by the roots of the plant, and the highest plant gets from the fungus of the decomposition of azo-tyster organic substances in the soil. Dream-spring root itself get these products can not. It is also assumed that mushrooms produce vitamine-like substances that enhance the growth of the highest plant. In addition, it is undoubted that a mushroom cover, taking the root of a tree and having numerous branching in the so-in, much increases the surface of the root system, absorbing water, which is very significant in the life of the plant.

Symbiosis of mushroom and higher plants should be taken into account in many practical measures. For example, during the dilution of the forest, when laying the structural forest bands, it is necessary to "infect" the soil with mushrooms entering into symbiosis with the breed of trees, which plant.

A great practical importance is the SIM biose between nitrogenous bacteria and higher plants from the bobo-out family (beans, peas, beans, alfalfa and many others).

On the roots of the bean plant, the tumors are usually tumor, in the cells of which are bacteria. The existence of such nodule bacteria was opened in 1866. Rus-sky nerd M. S. Voronin. The role of these bacteria in the life of the bean plant set-willi in 1886 German scientists Gelrigel and Villefart. These scientists have proven that nodule bacteria are absorbed from the atmosphere of gas nitrogen and use it when creating organic substances. It was then installed that these bacteria were able to absorb the atmospheric nitrogen, only living in a bobo-volume cage. The legight plant gets the possibility of additional nitrogen pita, since only a minor part of the absorber and associated nitrogen bacteria goes to construct protein substances of the Bakat-Riy themselves, greater part of nitrogenous substances are highlighted by bacteria in the root cells. From the root these nutrients are moving into the cells stemboth leaves are used for the synthesis of protein substances.

After collecting the harvest of legume plants, Clavo-Ben with bacteria, caught nitrogen, are sold on the roots. Roots decompose in the soil and enrich it connected and well-digest-mam plant nitrogen. Soil fertility is amused, and almost any plant sowned on next year In this area, will give a higher harvest.

Nodule bacteria in symbiosis with bobo plants annually absorb from the atmosphere sphere of pure nitrogen from 100 to 300 kgon hek-tar. If you consider the entire sowing area, occupied by legumes, it is easy to understand how a large amount of atmospheric nitrogen is captured by the tuber-neck bacteria.

Higher plants lived in symbiosis with mushrooms and bacteria throughout its history. The output of plants on land was largely due to symbiosis with mushrooms (mikoriza). Genetic systems that ensure the interaction of plants with mycorrhis mushrooms, in the future repeatedly changed due to the involvement of new fungi and bacteria into symbios. The primary function of the roots consisted of providing symbiosis with soil microorganisms, and only then the roots acquired the ability to self-absorb nutrients from the soil.

Article N.A.Provorova is a large analytical review containing so many important facts and ideas that its transfer in the form of a brief popular note seems to be quite ungrateful. However, this must be done as we cannot publish full texts Articles (Recall that the organization, referred to as "Miik Science - Interperiodika," owns the monopoly law to trade with these texts).

Earlier, on our site, the retelling of the article N.A.Provorov and E.A. D. Dadigih (see: from biochemical cooperation - to the general genome; there is also a selection of references on the latest discoveries in the field of studying symbiotic systems).

In his new article, N.A.Provorov shows that, despite the huge variety of plant-microbial symbiosis, most of them seem to have a single evolutionary origin.

By the end of the XX century, it became clear that the various forms of vegetable microbial symbiosis were based on very similar genetic, cellular and molecular mechanisms. Their study led most professionals to the conclusion that the entire observed variety of symbiosis of plants with soil mushrooms and bacteria occurred from one of the most ancient, primary form of such symbiosis - armbuscular Mycorrhiza (s). Mushrooms involved in AM penetrate the inside of plant cells, forming special intracellular stakes there - Armbuslas (see: "Elements", 12.03.08).

1. The origin of the armbiscular mycorrosis and the origin of land plants. Already the most ancient and primitive ground plants - psulifitis - lived in symbiosis with mushrooms and had AM (see: W Remy, TN Taylor, H HASS, H Kerp. Four Hundred-Million-Year-Old Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae // PNAS. 1994 . V. 91. P. 11841-11843). Psulifitis has not yet had real roots. Their underground part represented the rhizoids that could serve to fix the plant in the ground, but not for nutrition. Therefore, for the first terrestrial plants, symbiosis with mushrooms, apparently, was absolutely necessary. AM is also characteristic for most modern plants (and those whose not, most likely come from the ancestors that had AM).

On this basis, in the 1970s, a hypothesis was proposed that the yield of plants on land took place precisely thanks to the symbiosis with am mushrooms (Pirozinski, Malloch, 1975). This hypothesis subsequently brilliantly confirmed not only by paleontological data, but also molecular phylogenetic: Analysis of 18S genes RRNA has shown that am mushrooms come from a total ancestor who lived 400-500 million years ago, i.e. Just at the time when the first plants appeared on land.

Apparently, "already at the dawn of the evolution of land plants, they had the ability to regulate the vital activity of microorganisms colonizing underground authorities." The gene systems am are quite universal (this is exposed to low specificity of am mushrooms in relation to plants), and later they were repeatedly rebuilt to organize various symbiosis in various groups of plants.

Both plants and mushrooms, apparently, could "prepare" to a long living together long before the plant's exit on land. Perhaps the ancestors of higher plants already in the aquatic environment entered the symbiosis with various aquatic mushrooms, as the green and red algae today do. Mushrooms, who came to the land, much before the plants, could enter here in symbiosis with cyanobacteria. GEOSIPHON mushroom, considered the most likely ancestor of AM-mushrooms, enters a symbiosis with nostoc cyanobacteriums, which not only photosynthesize, but also fix atmospheric nitrogen. This allows the fungus to live on extremely poor substrates. Symbiosis of this type could be widespread on land before putting it by plants. Thus, even before the release of plants, the soil mushrooms could develop efficient systems for the absorption of organic materials produced by photosynthetic symbilations, as well as to supply these symbiontes with phosphates absorbed by the soil mushroom.

Unlike cyanobacteria, plants can supply symbiotic mushrooms much more than organic. The lack of nitrogen in the symbiotic system could be compensated by the symbiosis of am mushrooms with other nitrogen fixing microbes.

4. Symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing bacteria.Genetic systems that ensure the possibility of symbiosis of plants with nitrofixing bacteria, apparently, are the result of the modification of the AM genetic systems (see: the change in the gene required for symbiosis of plants with mushrooms has led to the formation of symbiosis with nitrogen fixing bacteria. "Elements", 12.03.08 ). In addition, N. A. Provorov suggests that "during the evolution of am glomus mushrooms served for plants with donors of nitrogen-fixing symbiontes." Glomus mushrooms participating in AM often enter the symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. "Given a truly planetary scale of what is happening in the development of ammaming of mushroom and vegetable cytoplasm, it is logical to assume that the selection could pick up even very rarely arising endosimbilation of mushrooms that could maintain viability in the cytoplasm of plants."

The article disassembles in detail possible paths Evolution of symbiosis of plants with nitrogen-fixing bacteria - rizobios and actinobacteria. It is noted that a large role in the development of these sibmiosis was played by predaptations, developed during the evolution of AM, however, many genes and gene complexes of plants were recruited to establish relationships with new symbilations, which previously performed other functions.

Apparently, "the acquisition of bipathic abilities to nitrogen-fixing nodule symbiosis was associated with the consistent substitution of various types of microorganisms, which may occur intercellular and subcellular symbiotic compartments in the root cortex. At the same time, prokaryotic nitrogen-powders used anestral accommodation program ("hosting") of microsimbilations, which arose with the coevolution of the oldest terrestrial plants with am-mushrooms and undergoes natural complications that occur in parallel in various families. "

The initial stage of this process may have been the replacement of am-fungi nitrogen-fixing actinobacteriums Frankia. These bacteria look very similar to mushrooms (so they were previously called actinomycetes). Like mushrooms, they form mycelium. At first, the nitrogen-fixing activity of new symbiontes was low, but then the plants developed the means for its intensification (in particular, nitrogenous compounds that inhibit nitrofixation were more intensely began to pump into the above-ground part of the plant).

Symbiosis with Frankia has created prerequisites for plants entry into symbiosis and with other nitrogen-powders who could outset actinobacteria from the symbiosis development program, in particular, due to their faster growth. Bacteria competitors learned faster than Frankia, activate the hosting program in plants, i.e. Stimulate the plant for receiving symbiontes. Frankia penetration in the root precedes long (a few days) a period of accumulation of actinobacteria at the root surface, while the risobia takes place this preliminary stage in just a few hours.

However, the replacement of "mushroom-like" actinobacterias by other bacterial symbilation (risobia) was conjugate due to a danger, since it opened the way to the plant's organism with a multitude of other bacteria, including pathogenic. It is possible that that is why symbiosis with rhizobios developed only in legumes and some verdigible (this could be due to the peculiarities of protective systems of these plants).

The replacement of mycorrhis mushrooms by nitrogenous physsificses did not mean the refusal of mycorrhiza at all. On the contrary, the overwhelming majority of legumes and "actinurized" plants also have AM. At the same time, nitrogen-fixing symbilations supply a plant with nitrogen, and mushrooms - phosphorus. However, plants living in symbiosis with rhizobios do not form actinarism, because it makes no sense to support two duplicate nitrogen-fixing symbiosis (on their maintenance of a plant you have to spend a lot of energy).

Thus, the development of a variety of vegetable-mushroom and vegetable-bacterial symbiosis is a single evolutionary continuum.

Symbiosis is a long-term cohabitation of organisms of two or several different types of plants or animals, as well as plants with animals, when their relationship with each other is very close and mutually beneficial. Symbiosis provides these organisms better overcoming adverse environmental impacts and especially better food. This article describes the symbiosis in the plant world.

In tropical countries there is a very interesting plant - Mirmekody. This plant is an anthill. It lives on branches or trunks of other plants. The lower part of its stem is highly expanded and presents

it's a big bulb. The whole bulb is permeated by canals communicating with each other. The ants are in them. Channels arise in the process of developing a thickened stem, and they are not thrown by ants. Consequently, ants get ready home from the plant. But the plant brings the benefits living in it.

The fact is that in the tropics there are ants-leaforesis. They bring great harm to plants. In Mirmekodia, ants of another species are settled, who are warring with ants-leafy. Mirmecodia guests do not allow sheetares to her top and do not give them the lies of her gentle leaves. Thus, the plant provides an animal room, and the animal protects the plant from its enemies. In addition to Mirmekodia, many and other plants in the collapse with ants are growing in the tropics.

There are even closer forms of symbiosis of plants and animals. Such, for example, symbiosis of unicellular algae with amoebas, soils, infusories and other simple animals. In the cells of these animals, green algae is settled, for example ZOO Bohlorella. For a long time, the green calves in the cells of the simplest animals were considered organides of the animal himself, and only in 1871, the famous Russian Botanist L. S. Tsakovsky found that this is nothing more than the cohabitation of the simplest organisms, subsequently called symbiosis.

ZOOOHLORELLA, living in ameb cell, is better protected from adverse external influences. Before it is eating any other animal, it should overcome the resistance of amoeba. The body of the simplest animal is transparent, so the process of photosynthesis proceeds from algae normally. And the animal receives from algae soluble photosynthesis products (mainly carbohydrates - sugar) and feeds them. In addition, with photosynthesis, algae is distinguished by oxygen, and the animal uses it for breathing. In turn, the animal provides algae necessary for its nutrition by nitrogenous compounds. Mutual benefit for animal and plants from symbiosis is obvious.

Not only the simplest single-cell animals, but some multicellular, adapted to symbiosis with algae. The algae is found in the cells of Hydra, sponges, worms, iglozzy and mollusks. For some animals, symbiosis with algae has become so necessary that their body cannot develop normally if there are no algae in its cells.

Symbiosis is particularly interesting when both of his participant are plants. Perhaps the most striking example of symbiosis of two vegetable organisms is lichen. Lichen is perceived as a single organism. In fact, it consists of a mushroom and algae. It is the basis of the intertwining gifs (threads) of the fungus. On the surface of the lichen, these gifs are intertwined tightly, and in a loose layer under the surface among the hyphal, algae nests. Most often it is unicellular green algae.

Less often are lichen with multicellular blue-green algae. Algae cells are braided with gifami mushrooms. Sometimes even suckers are formed in the gifs that penetrate the inside of algae cells.

The cohabitation is beneficial and mushroom, and algae. Algae receives water from the mushroom with dissolved mineral salts and drying protection. And the mushroom receives from algae organic compounds produced by it in the process of photosynthesis, mainly carbohydrates.

Symbiosis helps so well lichens in the struggle for the existence that they are able to set on sandy soils, on bare, fruitless rocks, on glass, on sheet gland, i.e., where no other plant can exist. Lichenniks are found in the extreme north, in the high mountains, in the deserts - if only there was light: without the light of algae in a lichen can not absorb carbon dioxide and dies.

The mushroom and alga died so much in a lichen, so much is a single organism that they even breed them most often together.

For a long time, lichens were taken for ordinary plants and attributed them to MCHAM. Green cells in lichen were taken for chlorophille grains of green plants.

Only in 1867 such a look was shaken by the research of Russian scientists A. S. Famyshna and O. V. Baranetsky. They managed to highlight green cells from the xanology lichen and establish that they can not only live outside the body of lichen, but also multiply by division and disputes. Consequently, green lichen cells are independent algae.

Everyone knows, for example, that the boomines need to look for where the aspens is growing, brewer - in birch forests. It turns out that hay mushrooms grow near certain trees not by chance. Those "mushrooms" that we collect in the forest are only fruit bodies. The very body of the mushroom mushroom, or mycelium, lives under the ground and is a filamentous gifs that permeate the soil (see Art. "Mushrooms"). From the surface of the soil, they stretch to the tips of the wood roots. Under the microscope, it can be seen as gifs, as if felt, tip the root tip. The symbiosis of the fungus with the roots of higher plants is called mycorrhoids that translated from Greek means "Mribocornia".

The overwhelming majority of trees in our latitudes and a lot of herbaceous plants (including wheat) form with mushrooms of Mikariz. Scientists found that the normal growth of many trees is impossible without the participation of the fungus, although there are trees that can develop and without them, for example, birch, Lipa. The symbiosis of the mushroom with a higher plant existed at the dawn of ground flora. The first higher plants are ppi-pylofitis - already had underground bodies, closely related to gifs of mushrooms.

Most often, the mushroom only flies the root with their hyphae and forms a case, as if the outer fabric of the root. Less often encounter shapes of symbiosis when the mushroom is set in the root cells themselves. Especially brightly, such symbiosis is expressed in orchids that cannot develop without the participation of the fungus.

Science has not yet found out completely than the symbiosis is beneficial for mushroom and plant. It can be assumed that the fungus uses for its nutrition, apparently, carbohydrates (sugar), isolated by roots of the plant, and the highest plant gets from the fungus products decomposition of nitrogenous organic substances in the soil. Wood root itself get these products can not. It is also assumed that mushrooms produce vitamine-like substances that enhance the growth of the highest plant. In addition, it is undoubted that a mushroom cover, taking the root of a tree and having numerous branching in the soil, much increases the surface of the root system absorbing water, which is very significant in the life of the plant.

Symbiosis of mushroom and higher plants should be taken into account in many practical events. For example, during the dilution of the forest, when laying the structural forest bands, it is necessary to "infect" the soil with mushrooms entering into symbiosis with the breed of trees, which plant.

A huge practical significance has symbiosis between nitrogenous bacteria and higher plants from the legume family (beans, peas, beans, alfalfa and many others).

On the roots of the bean plant, tumors usually occur - the tumors, in the cells of which are bacteria. The existence of such nodule bacteria was opened in 1866. Russian Botanist M. S. Voronin. The role of these bacteria in the life of the leggings was established in 1886 by German scientists Gelrigel and Villefart. These scientists have proven that

Table to the article "Symbiosis in the plant world."

At the top - symbiosis in the life of the lower plants. Lichens: 1 - Cladonia; 2 - parmelia; 3 - Xanitoria; 4 - chains and spherical algae cells visible in a microscope in a slurry section of various lichens. Below - plants from the orchid family. Most tropical orchids are epiphytes, i.e. plants living on other plants: 1 - epiphytic tropical orchids with air (a) and tanning (b) roots that are sinking to the host plant; 2 - Land Orchid Moderate Belt - Venerene Shoe; 3 - transverse seedlings of the Orchid Orchid Venerine Shoe.

Table to the article "Insectivore Plants".

Insectivorous plants: 1 - non-tenty, grows in the tropics and subtropics of Asia, Indonesia and Australia; 2 - Sarration, grows on swamps in the ingredian states. America; 3 - girlfriend, the swampy plant of the moderate zone, is found in the USSR.

benkovy bacteria are absorbed from the atmosphere of gas nitrogen and use it when creating organic substances. It was then established that these bacteria are able to absorb atmospheric nitrogen, only living in the cell of the bean plant. The legight plant gets the possibility of additional nitrogen nutrition, since only a minor part of the absorbed and associated nitrogen bacteria goes to construct protein substances of the bacteria themselves, greater part of nitrogenous substances are highlighted by bacteria in the root cells. From the root, these nutrients are transferred to the cells of the stem and leaves and are used by the plant for the synthesis of protein substances.

After harvesting the legumes of legume plants, non-nitrogen tanks with bacterias remain on the roots. Roots decompose in the soil and enrich it with associated and well-digestible nitrogen plants. The soil fertility rises, and almost any plant, sowned for the next year on this site, will give a higher harvest.

Nodule bacteria in symbiosis with bean plants are absorbed annually from the atmosphere of pure nitrogen from 100 to 300 kg per hectare. If you consider the entire sowing area, occupied by legumes, it is easy to understand how a large amount of atmospheric nitrogen is captured by non-nodule bacteria.