Embodiments from orbit 3 - go to a new orbit (which in turn can be closer or further from the sun or in general to be very elongated), fall into the sun and leave the solar system. Consider only the third option, which, in my opinion, the most interesting.

As we are moving away from the Sun, there will be less ultraviolet for photosynthesis and the average temperature on the planet will decrease year after year. The first plants will suffer, which will lead to serious shocks in food chains and in ecosystems. And the ice age will come enough quickly. Single oasis with more or less conditions will be near geothermal sources, geysers. But not for long.

After a number of years (by the way, the time of the year will not be), at a certain distance from the Sun on the surface of our planet, not quite ordinary rains will begin. It will rain from oxygen. If you're lucky, maybe snow from oxygen will go. Whether people will be able to adapt to the surface to unambiguously say I can not - eating it either will not be, steel in such conditions will be too fragile, so fuel how to extract it is unclear. The surface of the ocean will freeze on a solid depth, the ice hat due to the extension of ice will cover the entire surface of the planet except the mountains - our planet will become white.

But the temperature of the core of the planet, the mantle will not change, so under the ice cap at a depth of several kilometers the temperature will be preserved quite tolerant. (If you proceed such a mine and provide constant food and oxygen - there can even live)

The funniest is in the naval depths. There, where and now does not penetrate the ray of light. There, at a depth of several kilometers below the surface of the ocean, there are whole ecosystems that are absolutely not dependent on the sun, from photosynthesis, from solar heat. There is its cycle of substances, chemosynthesis instead of photosynthesis, and the desired temperature is maintained due to the heat of our planet (volcanic activity, underwater hot springs, and so on) since the temperature inside our planet is ensured by its gravity, mass, even without the sun, and outside the solar Systems, there will be stable conditions, the desired temperature will be maintained. And the life that boils in the sea depths, at the bottom of the ocean, will not even notice that the sun was gone. That life does not even know that our planet once spinning around the sun. It may be evolving.

It is also unlikely but it is also possible that the snow ball - the Earth sometime, after a billion years, it will take one of the stars of our galaxy and falls on its orbit. It is also possible that on that orbit another star, our planet "fatters" and on the surface will appear favorable conditions for living. Perhaps life in the sea depths, overcoming this whole path will again come to the surface, as it has already happened once. Maybe as a result of evolution on our planet after such a reasonable life will appear. And finally, maybe they will find surviving media with questions and answers of the site in the remains of one of the data centers.

something your conversation is "punched":

What is the distance from Earth to Sun?

The distance between the Earth and the Sun ranges from 147 to 152 million km. It was possible to measure very accurately with radar.

What is the light year?

The light year is called a distance of 9460 billion km. It is this way that the light takes place for the year, moving at a constant speed of 300,000 km / s.

Is it far to the moon?

The moon is our neighbor. The distance to it in the nearest land point of the orbit is 35,6410 km. Maximum removal of the moon from the ground - 406697 km. The distance was calculated in time that the laser beam was required to reach the moon and return back, reflected from the mirrors left on the surface of the Moon by American astronauts and Soviet lunar devices.

What is parseka?

Parsek is equal to 3.26 light years. Parallaxic distances are measured in parlaxes, that is, the distance calculated geometrically for the smallest shifts of the visible position of the star when the earth is moving around the sun.

What is the most distant star you can see?

The most remote space objects that can be observed from the ground - quasars. They are at a distance of 13 billion light years from the Earth.

Are stars removed?

Studies of red bias show that all galaxies are removed from ours. The farther, the faster they move. The most distant galaxies are moving almost at the speed of light.

How did the distance to the sun first measured?

In 1672, two Astronomoms - Cassini in France and Richer in Guiana - noted the exact position of Mars in the sky. They calculated the distance to Mars on a small difference between the two dimensions. And then scientists with the help of elementary geometry calculated the distance from the ground to the Sun. The value obtained by Cassini was understated by 7%.

What is the distance to the nearest star?

The closest star to the solar system is a proxima of the Centaur, the distance to it is 4.3 light years, or 40 trillion. km.

How do astronomers measure distances?

What is the distance from the ground to the Sun?

The sun(hereinafter p.) - the central body of the solar system, is a split plasma ball; S. - the star closest to the ground. Mass C. - 1,990 1030 kg (at 332,958 times more mass of the Earth). In C. 99.866% of the mass of the solar system are concentrated. Sunny parallax (angle under which from the center of C. Vidine is visible to the Equatorial radius of the Earth, which is on average distance from C., is 8 ", 794 (4,263''10 \u003d 5 Glad). Distance from Earth to C. varies from 1,4710'1011 m (January) to 1,5210'1011 m (July), by average 1,4960'1011 m (Astronomical unit). The average angular diameter of C. is 1919 ", 26 (9.305'10 \u003d 3 is glad), which corresponds to the linear diameter C. 1,392'109 M (109 times larger than the level of the Earth's equator). The average density S. 1,41'103 kg / M3. Acceleration of gravity on the surface S. is 273.98 m / s2. Parabolic speed on the surface C. (second cosmic speed) 6,18'105 m / s. Efficient surface temperature S., determined, according to Stephen - Boltzmann law Radiation, according to the full radiation S. (see solar radiation), is 5770 K.

The history of telescopic observations of S. begins with observations made by Galileem in 1611; Solar spots were opened, the treatment period of S. around its axis was determined. In 1843, the German astronomer Schwab found the cyclicity of solar activity. The development of spectral analysis methods made it possible to examine the physical conditions on S. in 1814 y. Fraunhing found the dark absorption lines in the S. S. - this was the beginning of the study of the chemical composition of S. from 1836, the eclipses of S., which led to the detection of the crown and chromosphere with ., as well as solar protuberans. In 1913, American astronomer J. Heil watched the Zeemansky splitting of the phraungafer lines of the spectrum of solar spots and this has proved the existence on S. magnetic fields. By 1942, the Swedish astronomer B. Edule et al. I was identified by several lines of the spectrum of the solar crown with lines of high-entered elements, proving this high temperature in the solar crown. In 1931 B. Lio invented a sunrigger, which allowed to observe the crown and chromospher outside the eclipse. At the beginning of the 40s. 20 V. The sun radio emission was opened. A public impetus for the development of physics S. in the 2nd half of the 20th century. The development of magnetic hydrodynamics and plasma physics has served. After the start of the cosmic era, the study of ultraviolet and X-ray radiation S. is carried out by methods of nonathmapper astronomy using rockets, automatic orbital observatories on earth satellites, space laboratories with people on board. In the USSR, S. Studies are conducted on the Crimean and Pulkovo Observatory, in the astronomical institutions of Moscow, Kiev, Tashkent, Alma-Ata. Abstumani, Irkutsk and others. Research S. is engaged in most foreign astrophysical observatories (see Astronomical Observatory and Institutions).

Rotation C. Around the axis occurs in the same direction as the rotation of the Earth, in the plane tilted at 7? 15 "to the plane of the Earth orbits (ecliptic). The rotational speed is determined by the visible movement of various parts in the S. atmosphere and spectral lines In the spectrum of the disc edge of the C. Due to the Doppler effect. Thus it was found that the period of rotation S. Noodynaks on different latitudes. The position of various parts on the surface C. is determined by the help of helographic coordinates counted from the solar equator (Heliographic latitude) and from Central Meridian Visible disk S. or from a certain meridian chosen as an initial (t. N. Meridian Carrington). At the same time, it is believed that S. rotates like a solid body. The position of the initial meridian is given in astronomical yearbooks for every day. There are also information about Position of the S. axis on the celestial sphere. One turnover against the ground of a point with a helicographic latitude 17? Make 2,275 days ( synodic). The turnover time on the same breadth of S. Regarding the stars (Sideric period) - 25.38 days. The angular velocity W for the Sideric Rotation varies with the Helographic latitude J by law: w \u003d 14?, 44-3? sin2j per day. The linear speed of rotation at the Equator S. - about 2000 m / s.

S. As a star is a typical yellow dwarf and is located in the middle part of the main sequence of the stars on the Herzshprung - Remellla diagram. Vidnable photovisual star value C. equal - 26.74, the absolute visual star value MV is + 4.83. Color indicator S. is for the case of blue (C) and visual (V) regions of the MB spectrum - mv \u003d 0.65. Spectral class C. G2V. The speed of movement relative to the totality of the nearest stars 19.7? 103 m / s. C. Located inside one of the spiral branches of our galaxy at a distance of about 10 kPs from its center. Creating a period of C. Around the center of the Galaxy about 200 million years. Age S. - about 5? 109 years.

The inner structure of C. is determined under the assumption that it is a spherically symmetric body and is in equilibrium. Energy transfer equation, the law of conservation of energy, the equation of the state of the ideal gas, the law of Stephen - Boltzmann and the conditions of hydrostatic, radiant and convective equilibrium, together with the values \u200b\u200bof full luminosity determined from observations, the full mass and radius of C. and the data on its chemical composition are allowed to build a model The inner structure of C. It is believed that the hydrogen content in C. By weight of about 70%, helium is about 27%, the content of all other elements is about 2.5%. Based on these assumptions, it is calculated that the temperature in the center of C. is 10-15? 106k, a density of about 1,5'105 kg / m3, pressure 3,4'1016 N / m2 (about 3'1011 atmospheres). It is believed that the source of energy that replenishes the losses on radiation and supporting the high temperature C. is nuclear reactions occurring in the depths of C. The average amount of energy produced inside C. is 1.92 ERG in g per centurization of energy is determined by nuclear reactions under which hydrogen turns into helium. On C. 2 groups of thermonuclear reactions of this type are possible: etc. Proton proton (hydrogen) cycle and carbon cycle (cycle Bethe). It is most likely that a proton-proton cycle prevails, consisting of 3 reactions, in the first of which from the hydrogen nuclei, the deuterium kernels are formed (heavy hydrogen isotope, atomic weight 2); In the second from the deuterium nuclei, the kelid of helium isotope with atomic weight 3 is formed and, finally, in the third of them, the kernel of a stable helium isotope with atomic mass is formed.

Energy transfer from the inner layers of C. Basically occurs through the absorption of electromagnetic radiation coming from below, and the subsequent re-energization. As a result of a decrease in temperature by removal from the center of C. Gradually increases the wavelength of the radiation wave, carrying most of the energy into the upper layers (see the wines of the radiation law). The energy of the energy movement of the hot substance from the inner layers, and cooled inward (convection) plays a significant role in Comparatively higher layers forming the convective zone C., which begins at a depth of about 0.2 solar radius and has a thickness of about 108 m. The speed of convective movements is growing with the removal from the center of C. and in the outer part of the convective zone reaches (2-2, 5)? 103 m / s. In even higher layers (in the atmosphere C.), energy transfer is again carried out by radiation. In the upper layers of the atmosphere C. (in the chromosphere and crown), part of the energy is delivered by mechanical and magnetohydrodynamic waves, which are generated in the convective zone, but are absorbed only in these layers. The density in the upper atmosphere is very small, and the necessary removal of energy due to radiation and thermal conductivity is possible only if the kinetic temperature of these layers is large enough. Finally, in the upper part of the solar crown, most of the energy carry out the streams of the substance moving from C., so-called. sunny wind. The temperature in each layer is installed at such a level that the energy balance is automatically carried out: the amount of energy caused by the absorption of all types of radiation, thermal conductivity or the movement of the substance is equal to the sum of all the energy loss of the layer.

Complete radiation of C. is determined by the illumination created by it on the surface of the Earth - about 100 thousand LCs, when C. is in the zenith. Outside the atmosphere on average earth distance from C. Illumination is 127 thousand LCs. The power of Light S. is 2.84? 1027 The light amount of energy coming in 1 min to a platform of 1 cm3, put perpendicular to the solar rays outside the atmosphere on average earth distance from C., called solar constant. Power of general radiation C. - 3.83? 1026 W, from which about 2? 1017 W fall on the ground, the average brightness of the surface C. (when observed outside the Earth's atmosphere) - 1.98? 109 NT, the brightness of the Disc Center S. - 2.48? 109 nt. The brightness of the S. disk decreases from the center to the edge, and this decrease depends on the wavelength, so that the brightness on the edge of the disk C., for example, for light with a wavelength of 3600 A, is about 0.2 brightness of its center, and for 5000 A - About 0.3 brightness of the center of the disk C. On the very edge of the C. S. Brightness falls 100 times for less than one second of the arc, therefore the boundary of the C disk looks very sharp (Fig. 1).

The spectral composition of the light emitted by S., i.e., the distribution of energy in the spectrum of S. (after taking into account the effect of absorption in the earth's atmosphere and the effect of fraunfor lines), in general, corresponds to the distribution of energy in the emission of an absolutely black body with a temperature of about 6000 K. However In some parts of the spectrum there are noticeable deviations. Maximum energy in the spectrum C. corresponds to the wavelength of 4600 A. Spectrum is a continuous spectrum on which more than 20 thousand absorption lines (frauling lines) are imposed. More than 60% of them are identified with spectral lines of known chemical elements by comparing wavelengths and the relative intensity of the absorption line in the solar spectrum with laboratory spectra. The study of phraungofer lines gives information not only about the chemical composition of the atmosphere of S., but also on physical conditions in those layers in which certain absorption lines are formed. The predominant element on C. is hydrogen. The number of helium atoms is 4-5 times less than hydrogen. The number of atoms of all other elements combined at least 1000 times less than the number of hydrogen atoms. Among them are the most abundant oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, magnesium, silicon, sulfur, iron, etc. in the Spectre of C. You can also identify lines belonging to some molecules and free radicals: OH, NH, CH, CO, etc.

Magnetic fields on C. are measured mainly on Zeemansky cleavage of absorption lines in the S. Spectre (see Zeeman Effect). There are several types of magnetic fields on C. (see solar magnetism). The total magnetic nic of S. is small and reaches the voltage in 1 e of a polarity and changes over time. This field is closely related to the interplanetary magnetic field and its sectoral structure. Magnetic fields associated with solar activity can reach in the solar spots of tension in several thousand E. Structure of magnetic fields in active areas very confused, magnetic poles alternate various polarity. Local magnetic areas are also found with the field voltage in hundreds of e outside of solar spots. Magnetic fields penetrate into the chromosphere and in the solar crown. Magnicazodynamic and plasma processes play a big role in S.. At a temperature of 5000-10,000 to gas, it is sufficiently ionized, its conductivity is large and due to the huge scale of solar phenomena, the value of electromechanical and magnetic interactions is very large (see cosmic magnetohydrodynamics).

The atmosphere of S. form external, available observations of the layers. Almost all radiation S. comes from the bottom of its atmosphere, called the photosphere. Based on the equations of radiant transfer of energy, radiant and local thermodynamic equilibrium and the observed radiation stream, you can theoretically construct a temperature distribution model and a density with depth in the photosphere. The thickness of the photosphere is about 300 km, its average density is 3? 10 \u003d 4 kg / m3. The temperature in the photoosphere drops as it transitions to more outer layers, its average value of about 6000 K, on \u200b\u200bthe border of the photosphere about 4200 K. The pressure varies from 2-104 to 102 n / m2. The existence of convection in the bottomospheric zone C. manifests itself in the uneven brightness of the photosphere, visible to its graininess - so H. granulation structure. Granules are bright specks more or less round shape visible in the image of S., obtained in white light (Fig. 2). The size of the granules is 150-1000 km, the lifetime is 5-10 minutes. Separate granules can be observed for 20 minutes. Sometimes the granules form accumulations of up to 30,000 km. Granulated brighter interprank gaps by 20-30%, which corresponds to a difference in the temperature on average by 300 K. Unlike other formations, on the surface of C. Granulation is the same on all helicographic latitudes and not Depends on solar activity. The speed of chaotic movements (turbulent velocities) in the photosphere is for various definitions of 1-3 km / s. A quasi-periodic oscillatory movement in the radial direction was found in the photosphere. They occur at the venues with dimensions of 2-3 thousand km, with a period of about 5 minutes and the amplitude of the speed of about 500 m / s. After several periods of oscillation in this place, they may occur again. The observations also showed the existence of cells in which the movement occurs in a horizontal direction from the center of the cell to its borders. The speed of such movements is about 500 m / s. The sizes of cells - supergraded - 30-40 thousand km. According to the position of the supergradules coincide with chromospheric grid cells. At the borders supergraded the magnetic field strengthened. Support that the supergradules reflect the existence at the depth of several thousand km below the surface of the convective cells of the same size. It was originally assumed that the photosphere gives only continuous radiation, and the absorption lines are formed in the trading layer located above it. Later it was found that spectral lines are also formed in the photoosphere, and a continuous spectrum. However, to simplify mathematical calculations, when calculating the spectral lines, the concept of a trading layer is sometimes used.

Solar spots and torches. Often, solar spots and torches are observed in the photosphere (Fig. 1 and 2). Solar spots are dark formations, as a rule, from a more dark nucleus (shadow) and its surrounding half. Pain diameters reach 200,000 km. Sometimes the stain is surrounded by a light skate. Very small spots are called pores. The time of life of spots - from several hours to several months. There are even more lines and absorption lines and bands than in the spectrum of the photosphere, it resembles the spectrum spectrum spectrum. The displacements of the lines in the spectrum of spots due to the Doppler effect indicate the movement of the substance in stains - leakage at lower levels and flowing at higher, movement speeds reach 3-103 m / s (EVERSHED effect). From the comparisons of the intensities of the lines and the continuous spectrum of the spots and the photosphere, it follows that the stains are colder than 1-2 thousand degrees (4500 K and lower). As a result, on the background of the photosphere, the spots seem dark, the nucleus brightness is 0.2-0.5 of the brightness of the photosphere, the brightness of the half is about 80% of the photospheric. All solar spots have a strong magnetic field reaching for large stains of the voltage 5000 e. The stains form groups that can be unipolar, bipolar and multipolar, i.e. containing many spots of various polarity, often combined total phenomena. Pain groups are always surrounded by torches and flocculas, protuberans, sometimes solar flares sometimes occur, and in the solar crown above them are formations in the form of rays of helmets, laid - all this together forms an active area on C. The average annual number of observed spots and active areas, and Also, the average area occupied by them changes with a period of about 11 years. This is the average value, the duration of individual solar activity cycles ranges from 7.5 to 16 years (see solar activity). The largest number of spots simultaneously visible on the S. surface, changes for different cycles more than twice. Basically, stains are found in so-called. Royal zones stretching from 5 to 30? Helographic latitude on both sides of the solar equator. At the beginning of the solar activity cycle, the latitude of the location of the stains above, at the end of the cycle - below, and the spots of the new cycle appear on higher latitudes. More often there are bipolar groups of spots consisting of two large spots - the head and subsequent, having the opposite magnetic polarity, and somewhat smaller. Head stains have the same polarity during the entire cycle of solar activity, these polarities are opposite in the northern and southern hemisters of C. Apparently, the stains are recesses in the photosphere, and the density of the substance in them is less than the density of the substance in the photoosphere at the same level .

In the active regions of S., torches are observed - bright photospheric formations visible in white light predominantly near the edge of the C. C. Targets appear earlier than stains and exist some time after their disappearance. The area of \u200b\u200bthe torch sites is several times the area of \u200b\u200bthe corresponding group of spots. The number of torches on the S. disk depends on the solar activity cycle phase. The maximum contrast (18%) torches are near the edge of the C. disc, but not on the very edge. In the center of the disk S. Torchs are practically not visible, the contrast is very small. Torches have a complex fibrous structure, they depends on the wavelength on which observations are carried out. The temperature of the torches per several hundred degrees exceeds the photosphere temperature, the total radiation from 1 cm2 exceeds the photosphere by 3-5%. Apparently, torches are somewhat towering over the photosphere. The average duration of their existence is 15 days, but can reach almost 3 months.

Chromosphere. Above the photospheres is located a layer of atmosphere C., called chromosphere. Without special telescopes with narrowband filters, the chromosphere is visible only during full solar eclipses as a pink ring surrounding the dark drive, in those moments when the moon completely closes the photosphere. Then the chromosphere spectrum can be observed, etc. Spectrum of flash. On the edge of the disk C. Chromosphere is represented by an observer as an uneven strip from which individual teeth are chromospheric spikula. The diameter of the sprocket is 200-2000 km, the height of about 10,000 km, the rate of plasma lifting in the sprockets up to 30 km / s. At the same time on C. There is up to 250 thousand spikula. When observed in monochromatic light (for example, in the light of the line of ionized calcium 3934 A), a bright chromospheric grid is visible on the disk, consisting of separate nodules - minor diameter of 1000 km and a large diameter of 2000 to 8000 km. Large nodules are clusters of small. The dimensions of the mesh cells are 30-40 thousand km. Feat that the spicules are formed at the borders of the chromospheric mesh cells. When observed in the light of the red hydrogen line 6563 A near solar spots in the chromosphere, a characteristic vortex structure is visible (Fig. 3). The density in the chromosphere drops with an increase in distance from the center of C. The number of atoms in 1 cm3 varies from 1015 near the photosphere to 109 at the top of the chromosphere. The chromosphere spectrum consists of hundreds of emission spectral, hydrogen lines, helium, metals. The strongest of them are the red line of hydrogen NA (6563 A) and the line H and to ionized calcium with a wavelength of 3968 A and 3934 A. The length of the chromosphere is not sourced when observed in different spectrum, lines: in the strongest chromospheric lines it can be traced to 14 000 km over the photosphere. The study of the chromosphere spectra led to the conclusion that in the layer where the transition from the photosphere to the chromosphere occurs, the temperature passes through a minimum and as height increases above the base of the chromosphere becomes equal to 8-10 thousand k, and at a height of several thousand km reaches 15 -20 thousand K. It has been established that in the chromosphere there is a chaotic (turbulent) movement of gas masses with speeds up to 15? 103 m / s. In the chromosphere of torches in active areas are visible in monochromatic light of strong chromospheric lines as bright formations, called usually flocculas . Dark formations, called fibers, are clearly visible in the NA line. On the edge of the disk S. Fiber protrude for the disk and are observed against the background of the sky as bright protuberans. Most often fibers and protuberances are found in four arranged symmetrically relative to the solar equator zones: polar zones north + 40? and south -40? Helographic latitude and low-seam zones about? thirty? At the beginning of the solar activity cycle and 17? At the end of the cycle. Fibers and protuberances of low-seated zones show a well-pronounced 11-year cycle, their maximum coincides with the maximum spots. In high-tech protubers, the dependence on the phases of the solar activity cycle is less expressed, the maximum occurs 2 years after the maximum of spots. The fibers that are calm protubers can reach the length of the solar radius and exist for several revolutions of S. The average height of the protuberances above the surface S. is 30-50 thousand km, the average length is 200 thousand km, the width is 5 thousand km. According to the studies of A. B. Northern, all the protuberans in the nature of the movements can be divided into 3 groups: electromagnetic, in which movements occur in ordered twist trajectories - the power lines of the magnetic field; chaotic, in which disordered, turbulent movements prevail (speed of about 10 km / s); The eructural, in which the substance of the initially calm protuberance with chaotic movements is suddenly thrown away with increasing speed (reaching 700 km / s) away from C. Temperature in Protuberans (Fibers) 5-10 thousand k, the density is close to the medium density of the chromosphere. Fibers, which are active, rapidly changing protuberances, are usually strongly changed over several hours or even mines. The form and nature of movements in the protuberances are closely connected with the magnetic field in the chromosphere and the solar crown.

Solar crown is the most external and most rescued part of the solar atmosphere, extending to several (more than 10) solar radius. Until 1931, the crown could only be observed during full solar eclipses in the form of silver-pearly radiance around the closed moon of disk C. (see t. 9, plying to page 384-385). In the crown, it is well distinguished by the details of its structure: helmets, powdered, coronal rays and polar brushes. After the invention of the coronograph of the sunny crown began to observe and outside the eclipse. The overall form of the crown changes with the phase of the solar activity cycle: during the minimum of the crown is strongly stretched along the equator, during the maximum it is almost spherical. In white light, the surface brightness of the solar crown is a million times less than the brightness of the center of the C. The glow is formed mainly as a result of scattering photosphere radiation with free electrons. Almost all atoms in the crown are ionized. The concentration of ions and free electrons at the base of the crown is 109 particles in 1 cm3. Heating The crown is carried out similarly to the heating of the chromosphere. The greatest excretion of energy occurs at the bottom of the crown, but due to the high thermal conductivity of the crown almost isothermich - the temperature decreases to the outside very slowly. Energy outflow in the crown occurs in several ways. At the bottom of the crown, the main role is played by the transfer of energy down due to thermal conductivity. The loss of energy leads from the crown of the fastest particles. In the outer parts of the crown, most of the energy takes the solar wind - the flow of coronal gas, the speed of which grows with the removal from C. from several km / s at its surface to 450 km / s at the distance of the Earth. The temperature in the crown exceeds 106k. In active areas, the temperature is higher - to 107k. T. N. Coronal condensations in which the concentration of particles increases in tens of times. Part of the radiation of the inner crown is the radiation lines of repeatedly ionized iron, calcium, magnesium, carbon, oxygen, sulfur, and other chemical elements. They are also observed in the visible part of the spectrum, and in the ultraviolet region. In the solar crown, S. radio emission is generated in a metering range and X-ray, amplifying many times in active areas. As the calculations showed, the solar crown is not in equilibrium with the interplanetary medium. From the crown in the interplanetary space, the flows of particles forming the solar wind are distributed. Between the chromosphere and the crown there is a relatively thin transition layer, in which there is a sharp rise in temperature to the values \u200b\u200bcharacteristic of the crown. The conditions in it are determined by the stream of energy from the crown as a result of thermal conductivity. The transition layer is the source of most of the ultraviolet radiation C. Chromosphere, the transition layer and the crown give all the observed radio emission of C. In active areas, the structure of the chromosphere, the crown and the transition layer changes. This change, however, is not yet sufficiently studied.

Solar flares. In the active areas of the chromosphere, sudden and relatively short-term increase in brightness visible in many spectral lines are observed. These bright formations exist from several minutes to several hours. They are called solar flashes (the former name is chromospheric flashes). Flashes are best visible in the light of the hydrogen line of NA, but the most bright can be visible sometimes in white light. In the spectrum of the solar outbreak, there are several hundred emission lines of various elements, neutral and ionized. Temperatures of those layers of the solar atmosphere, which give a glow in chromospheric lines (1-2)? 104 K, in higher layers - up to 107 k. The density of the particles in the flash reaches 1013-1014 in 1 cm3. Square of solar flares can reach 1015 m3. Usually, solar flares occur near rapidly developing solar spots with a magnetic field of a complex configuration. They are accompanied by the activation of fibers and floccules, as well as emissions of the substance. With a flash, a large amount of energy is distinguished (up to 1010-1011 J). It is assumed that the solar outbreak energy is initially inhibited in a magnetic field, and then quickly released, which leads to local heating and acceleration of protons and electrons that cause further heat heating, its glow in Different sections of the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, the formation of a shock wave. Solar flares give a significant increase in ultraviolet radiation C., accompanied by splashes of X-ray radiation (sometimes very powerful), splash of radio emission, emissions of high energies, up to 1010 eV. Sometimes there are splashes of X-ray radiation and without amplifying the glow in the chromosphere. Some solar flares (they are called proton) are accompanied by particularly strong streams of energetic particles - the cosmic rays of solar origin. Proton flashes create a danger to astronauts located in flight, because Energetic particles, facing the atoms of the cosmic ship shell, generate brake, X-ray and gamma radiation, and sometimes in dangerous doses.

The effect of solar activity on the earth's phenomena. C. is ultimately the source of all types of energy used by humanity (except for atomic energy). This is the wind energy, falling water, the energy that is released during the combustion of all fuel species. The effect of solar activity on the processes occurring in the atmosphere, the magnetosphere and the Earth's biosphere (see solar-earth ties) is very diverse.

Tools for research S. Observations C. are carried out using refractors of small or medium size and large mirror telescopes, in which most optics are fixed, and the sun rays are sent inside the horizontal or tower installation of the telescope with one (siderostat, heliostat) or two (Cealth ) Moving mirrors (see Fig. To Art. Tower Telescope). During the construction of large solar telescopes, special attention is paid to the high spatial resolution on the disk S. Created a special type of solar telescope - an extra-branded coronograph. Inside the coronograph, an eclipse of S. artificial "moon" is carried out - a special opaque disc. In the coronograph, many times the amount of scattered light is reduced, so you can observe outside the eclipse the most external layers of the atmosphere S. Solar telescopes are often supplied with narrowband filters, which make it possible to observe in the light of one spectral line. Neutral light filters with variable transparency by radius are also created, allowing to observe the solar crown at a distance of several radii C. Typically, large solar telescopes are supplied with powerful spectrographs with photographic or photovoltaic spectra registration. The spectrograph also may also have a magnetograph - an instrument for the study of zeeman splitting and polarization of spectral lines and determining the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field on C. The need to eliminate the shearing effect of the earth's atmosphere, as well as the study of radiation S. in ultraviolet, infrared and some dr. Spectrum regions that Absorbned in the Earth's atmosphere, led to the creation of orbital observatories outside the atmosphere, allowing to obtain spectra of C. and individual formations on its surface outside the earth's atmosphere.

• We can set a number of large reflectors at the Lagrange point L1 so as not to give parts of the world to reach the Earth.
• We can change with the help of a geogerineering atmosphere / albedo of our planet so that it reflects more light and absorb less.
• We can save the planet from the greenhouse effect, removing molecules of methane and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
• We can leave the Earth and focus on the terraforming of the external worlds like Mars.

In the theory, everything can work, but will require tremendous effort and support.

However, the decision to migrate land for remote orbit can be final. And although we will have to constantly take the planet with orbit to maintain the temperature constant, this will take hundreds of millions of years. To compensate for the effect of 1% increase in the luminosity of the Sun, you need to remove the ground by 0.5% of the distance from the Sun; To compensate for an increase of 20% (that is, 2 billion years old), you need to take 9.5% lands on. The land will no longer be 149,600,000 km from the Sun, but at 164,000,000 km.

The distance from the ground to the Sun has not changed much over the past 4.5 billion years. But if the sun is heated and we do not want the Earth to Pierce Finally, we will have to seriously consider the possibility of migrating the planet.

It needs a lot of energy! Shifting the earth - all its six septillion kilograms (6 x 10 24) - away from the Sun - it means to significantly change our orbital parameters. If we take the planet from the Sun for 164,000,000 km, obvious differences will be noticeable:

• Earth will make a turn around the sun at 14.6% longer
• to maintain a stable orbit, our orbital speed should fall from 30 km / s to 28.5 km / s
• if the period of rotation of the Earth remains the same (24 hours), the year will not be 365, but 418 days
• The sun will be much smaller in the sky - by 10% - and the stuff caused by the Sun will be weaker for several centimeters

If the sun is swelling in size, and the Earth will be removed from it, the two of these effects are not entirely compensated; The sun will seem less from the ground

But in order to remove the Earth so far, we need to make very large energy changes: we will need to change the gravitational potential energy of the Sun system - the Earth. Even taking into account all other factors, including the slowdown in the movement of the Earth around the Sun, we will have to change the Earth's orbital energy by 4.7 x 10 35 Joules, which is equivalent to 1.3 x 10 20 Theravatt-hours: 10 15 times more annual energy costs who carries humanity. It would be possible to think that two billion years later they will be different and there is, but not much. We will need 500,000 times more energy than humanity generates today around the world, and all this will go to the movement of the Earth to a safe place.

The speed with which the planets turn around the Sun depends on their distance to the sun. Slow migration of land by 9.5% of the distance will not break the orbits of other planets.

Technologies are not the most difficult question. A difficult question is more fundamental: how do we get all this energy? In reality there is only one place that will satisfy our needs: this is the sun itself. Currently, the Earth receives about 1500 W energy per square meter from the Sun. To obtain sufficient power to migrate the Earth for the desired period of time, we will have to build an array (in space), which will collect 4.7 x 10 35 Joule energy, evenly, 2 billion years old. This means that we need an area of \u200b\u200b5 x 10 15 square meters (and 100% efficiency), which is equivalent to the entire area of \u200b\u200bten planets, like our.

The concept of cosmic solar energy is developed for a long time, but no one has yet imagined an array of solar cells in size of 5 billion square kilometers.

Therefore, to transport land to a safe orbit away, you will need a solar panel of 5 billion square kilometers of 100% efficiency, all the energy of which will go to the ejection of the Earth to another orbit within 2 billion years. Is it possible physically? Absolutely. With modern technologies? Not at all. Is it possible practically? With what we know now, there is almost certainly no. Drag the whole planet is difficult for two reasons: first, due to the strength of the gravitational attraction of the Sun and due to the massiveness of the Earth. But we have exactly the sun and such land, and the sun will warm up regardless of our acts. While we will not come up with how to collect and use such an amount of energy, we will need other strategies.

Explain impossible ... September 29th, 2016

Scientists from the laboratory of the NASA's reactive movement and the Los Alamos National Laboratory (USA) compiled a list of astronomical phenomena observed in the solar system, which is completely impossible to explain ...

These facts are repeatedly verified, and no doubt about their reality. Yes, only in the existing picture of the world they do not fit completely. And this means that either we do not quite well understand the laws of nature, or ... someone these the most laws constantly changes.

Here are some examples:

Who accelerates space probes

In 1989, Galileo's research apparatus went on a distant journey to Jupiter. In order to give it the desired speed, scientists used the "gravitational maneuver". The probe was close to Earth twice so that the power of the planet's gravity can "push it" by giving additional acceleration. But after maneuvers, the speed "Galileo" turned out to be higher than calculated.

The technique was worked out, and before all the devices accelerate normally. Then scientists had to send three more research stations to far space. Near's probe went to the Asteroid Eros, Rosetta flew to study Comet Churyumova-Gerasimenko, and Kassini went to Saturn. All of them made a gravitational maneuver equally, and all the final speed turned out to be more calculated - the scientists followed this indicator seriously after the observed anomaly with Galileo.

Explanations of what is happening is not. But all the devices sent to other planets after Cassini, a strange additional acceleration with a gravitational maneuver has not received for some reason. So what is "something" in the period from 1989 ("Galileo") to 1997 ("Cassini") attached to all probes that went to distant cosmos, additional overclocking?

Scientists still dilute with their hands: who needed to "push" four satellites? In the Ufological Circles, even the version arose that a certain Supreme Mind decided that it would be necessary to help earthlings explore the solar system.

Now this effect is not observed, and whether he will ever be shown - unknown.

Why land runs away from the sun?

Scientists have long learned to measure the distance from our planet to the shining. Now it is considered to be equal to 149,597,870 kilometers. Previously, they believed that it was invariably. But in 2004, Russian astronomers found that the Earth is removed from the Sun about 15 centimeters per year - it is 100 times more than the measurement error.

What happens that they used to describe only in fantastic novels: Planet went to "free swimming"? The nature of the started travel is still unknown. Of course, if the removal speed does not change, then one hundred million years will be held before we leave the sun so much that the planet will freeze. But suddenly the speed will increase. Or, on the contrary, the earth will begin to approach the luminary?

So far, no one knows what will happen next.

Who "Pioneers" does not allow the border abroad

American probes "Pioneer-10" and "Pioneer-11" were launched accordingly in 1972 and 1983. By now, they have already had to fly beyond the limits of the solar system. However, at a certain point and one, and the second for incomprehensible reasons began to change the trajectory, as if the unknown force does not want to let them go too far.

"Pioneer-10" rejected on four hundred thousand kilometers from the calculated trajectory. "Pioneer-11" exactly repeats the path of the fellow. There are many versions: the effect of solar wind, fuel leak, programming errors. But all of them are not too convincing, because both ships running off the interval at 11 years old behave equally.

If you do not take into account the goats of aliens or the divine idea, do not release people outside the solar system, then it may be just the effect of mysterious dark matter. Or are there any unknown gravitational effects?

What lures on the outskirts of our system

Far and far beyond the dwarf planet Pluto is a mysterious asteroid Sedna - one of the largest in our system. In addition, Sedna is considered the most red object in our system - he is even red in Mars. Why is it unknown.

But the main mystery in the other. A full turn around the sun he is done for 10 thousand years. And drawn on a very elongated orbit. Whether this asteroid flew to us from another star system, or, maybe, as some astronomers believe, a gravitational attraction of some major object is shot down with a circular orbit. What? Astronomers can not detect it.

Why solar eclipses are such ideal

In our system, the sizes of the sun and the moon, as well as the distance from the ground to the Moon and the sun are selected very original. If with our planet (by the way, the only one where there is a reasonable life) to observe a solar eclipse, then the selenium disk perfectly closes the disc shone - their size coincide exactly.

There would be a little less moon or was further from the ground, then we would never have complete solar eclipses. Accident? Something can not believe ...

Why do we live so close to our luminaire

In all the stelon systems studied by astronomers, planets are located one and the same rank. The larger the planet, the closer it is to the luminaries. In our solar system, the giants - Saturn and Jupiter - are located in the middle, skipping forward "babies" - Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. Why happened so - unknown.

If we had the same world order, as in the vicinity of all other stars, the land would be somewhere in the area of \u200b\u200bthe current Saturn. And there reigns a hell of cold and no conditions for a reasonable life.

Radio signal from the constellation Sagittar

In the 1970s, a program began a program to find possible alien radio signals. For this, the radio telescope was directed to different sections of the sky, and he scanned the air at different frequencies, trying to detect a signal of artificial origin.

Several years of astronomers boast at least some results could not. But on August 15, 1977, during the duty of Astronomom, Jerry Ehman, a recorder, registering everything that came to the "ears" of the radio telescope, recorded a signal or noise that lasted 37 seconds. This phenomenon was called WWW! - As a note on the fields, which brought the red ink stunned Ehman.

The "signal" was at a frequency of 1420 MHz. According to international agreements, no terrestrial transmitter works in this range. He proceeded from the direction of the constellation Sagittarius, where the nearest star is located at a distance of 220 light years from the ground. Artificially, he was - there is still no answer. Subsequently, scientists have repeatedly shake out this section of the sky. But to no avail.

Dark matter

All galaxies in our universe rotate around one center at high speed. But when scientists calculated the total masses of galaxies, it turned out that they are too light. And according to the laws of physics, all this carousel would have broken for a long time. However, it does not break.

To explain what is happening, scientists came up with a hypothesis, as if there was a certain dark matter in the Universe, which it is impossible to see. But what she represents themselves and how to touch her, astronomers do not yet imagine. It is only known that its mass is 90% of the mass of the universe. And this means that we know that the world surrounds us, just one tenth part.

Life on Mars

The search for organic on the red planet began in 1976 - American Viking devices landed there. They had to hold a number of experiments with a view to either confirm, or refute the hypothesis about the inhabitants of the planet. The results were contradictory: on the one hand, methane was revealed in the atmosphere of Mars - obviously, biogenic origin, but not a single organic molecule was identified.

The strange results of the experiments were written off on the chemical composition of the Martian soil and decided that there was still no life on the red planet. However, a number of other studies make it possible to assume that there was once moist on the surface of Mars, which again speaks in favor of the existence of life. According to some, we can talk about the underground forms of life.

What kind of riddles are not and "left eggs"?

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