On the eve of Russia, the Ministry of Agriculture of Russia failed the interim results of the grain collection during the production campaign of 2016. Small, if you can put it, the report on the pace and volumes of harvesting by Russian farmers, the head of the Ministry of Agriculture of the Ministry of Agriculture, Alexander Tkachev. On the data of cleaning Tkachev, said during the round table "Russia in the global grain market: strengthening the leading positions" of the information agency "Russia today". In turn, this round table was a kind of preparation of the II World Grain Forum, which will be held in Sochi on November 18-19.

According to the Minister of Agriculture, Russia in the current year is preparing to report on a record harvest. Tkachev suggests that such grain volumes our country has not collected 38 years!

Head of the Ministry of Agriculture:

In 2016, more than 117 million tons of grain will be collected in Russia, the export of grain crops, according to our forecasts, will reach 35 million tons, Russia will maintain leadership on wheat supplies, bypassing such major suppliers as the EU and the United States.

Alexander Tkachev:

More in our country was collected in 1978 - 127 million tons of grain crops.

The main factors for increasing the volumes of collected grain, according to the head of the department, became factors related to increasing yields. If 10-15 years ago, with significant sowing areas, the average yield in the country did not exceed 17 c from hectare, today it exceeded 27 c / ha. In the global expression, this is a relatively average result. However, there is also the most important growth factor in the percentage of sown areas in the Russian Federation. In other words, there, where a few years ago, "dead" lands were stood (overgrown with a bungyan), today wheat, rye, barley, other grain crops. Empty farmland are really less and less. And this is an indisputable fact.

The Minister of Agriculture has determined the priorities of the industry. According to him, to increase the Russian share in the global market of grain and other agricultural curtesses, Russia needs to actively increase the production and use of fertilizers. Tkachev noted that today producing about 20 million tons of fertilizers, only 2.6 million tons are used within the country. It is about 33 kg per 1 hectare of Pashnya. According to Tkachev, in the context of global competition this is clearly not enough. Fertilizers are given to other countries producing agricultural products. So, in the leaders for making fertilizers, China and Vietnam - already at 360 kg per 1 hectare of Pashnya. Next, Poland and Germany are followed - almost 200 kg / ha. In India and Brazil, the indicators are about 170 kg / ha, and in the United States and Canada - 130 and 88 kg / ha, respectively.

At the same time, and "remarking" with fertilizers is undesirable. After all, Russian products are distinguished by their high environmentally friendly, for example, from what is produced in separate regions of China, where they manage to grow agricultural culture at all without using natural soilsBy replacing them for "Chemistry" produced in industrial conditions. That is, you need to look for a balance between the use of fertilizers, their species, crop yields and the environmental acceptability of grown grain for eating without threats to human health. But after all, the situation can be reduced to absurd when, instead of grain, such a zombie plant will be grown on a huge scale, really "not knowing" natural soils. Thank God, in Russia, until that far. But we are talking about competition in the global market. And there anything is possible ... Including Chinese know-how to create artificial chicken eggs ...

During the round table, a long-term strategy for the development of the grain complex of the Russian Federation was discussed. We are talking about strategy until 2030, providing for a stable increase in grain collection volumes to 130-150 million tons.

Alexander Tkachev:

We can collect even more and set ourselves such a goal. By 2030, the gross grain harvest can be increased to 150 million tons due to the growth of yield to 30 centners with hectares and an increase in the sowing space by 10 million hectares. This will provide an opportunity to cover the growing livestock needs, which is steadily increasing by 5% per year, and double export.

Against this background in the newspaper "Gazeta.ru", a material announced that declares that rejoice at a record crop of grain in Russia, it turns out not. In the article for the authorship of Elena Platonova, it is argued that 2016 is becoming a year when the volumes of grown grain do not correspond to the possibilities of conservation. The author of the material claims that the "power" for storage of grain is about 115 million tons, and the harvest, remind, more than 118 million tons. In the same article, it is said about the obsolescence of the elevator fund, barn storage and their shortage to ensure the needs of storage. This leads to higher prices. Logic in "Gazeta.ru" is presented as: less storages - higher price for grain storage services - higher Price for final products (for example, on bread). The analysts of the "Proserno" are given: for the price of wheat 8-10 thousand rubles. For tons, the services of the elevator on reception, storage and grain issuing are about 10% of this amount (about 1 thousand rubles).

President of the Russian Grain Union Arkady Zlochevsky:

The size of the deficit is huge. This year, up to 118 million tons of grain yield are expected, add more than another 16 million tons of overgoing stocks. No more than 120 million storage facilities, besides, they are not distributed in accordance with the production base. We need to develop a warehouse base from grain producers. But farmers for the construction of elevators are not solved. Build an elevator expensive, it will pay off in 15-20 years.

bad harvest is bad, since bread may not be enough for everyone, it will have to buy grain abroad, which means the bread will rise in price;
an excellent harvest is also bad, since the grain "there is no place to store", and therefore the bread will also rise in price ...

It seems that in the same Russian grain alliance do not adhere to any strategy and only quietly expect average values \u200b\u200bon the volume of collection, so as not to buy grain - once, and it was, where to store - two. In fact, it is strange ... After all, if the storages are really missing, it turns out that none of the responsible persons did not take a smooth account for any measures to still have enough. Didn't wait? .. So, what? .. or the purpose of these most responsible persons and is that the price of grain prices for internal consumption grow, regardless of the crops and vaults? If so, it is not time to make certain "orgvoda" ...

1. Calculation of yield

For the time covered by the boundaries of this chapter, the greatest complexity in the assessment of the magnitude of the yields and the yield of breads in Russia is the question of the transfer of measures acting in the XIX century, in the standards of measures taken in the XX century. In determining grain fees, at least the beginning of the 80s of the XIX century were used., Exceptionally measurement measures. Moreover, in units of volume, i.e. The quarters were measured even the area of \u200b\u200bsowing lands. The ratios between the category "Quarter" (standard - the casino - a quarter accommodated 209.9 liters) and its weight filling, expressed in pudges, can be reliably traced only since the organization in the Central Statistical Committee system (CSK) of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia (MIA) ("Centralized") form of collecting and subsequent development of statistical information on agriculture (the beginning of the 80s of the XIX century).

Meanwhile, the weight filling of the quarter differed significantly from the province to the province. Each culture was, of course, "its own" (by weight) quarter. At the end of the XIX century. (1870-1900) Weight Filling a quarter to four main grain crops of Russian agriculture, according to the calculus A.S. Nififova, averaged: for wheat - 154.0 kg, for rye - 144,1 kg, for oats

91.7 kg, for barley - 119.6 kg 1. This meant that in each special (separately taken) area (for example, province), the weight filling of the weighted average ("provincial") quarter was the more significant than the "heavy" breads were singing on its territory.

Rye and wheat, and the less, the more sowing areas were given under the "light" bread - oats and barley (we take here only these basic four breads, for which, in 1801-1880, accounted for about 88%, and in 1881 1915 - more than 90% of all seed crops). Thus, the weight filling of the average according to the provincial quasine quarter with its strictly fixed (standard) volume was determined, firstly, the structure of cereal crops, and, secondly, the quality of the grain of each culture; The change in these determinants attracted and change the weight of the "regional" (for example, the "provincial") quarter. (About the shipern differences in the weight filling of a quarter to cultures, the data tables-22 tables are very clearly indicated. From the same data, the reader can also receive an idea how the weight of a quarter characteristic of one or another culture changed, depending on whether the years " Fat cows "or the years of" skinny cows "worried about the Russian plower.)

As for the yield, i.e. The release of grain per unit area (in the current measures taken in Russia, the yield is expressed in the amount of grain in kg, or centners obtained from one hectare of sowing, and since 2000 - "Related", Square), in the XIX century. Used category of self-so much. Himself was the ratio of volume harvest collected Grain crops measured in quarters, to the volume of exiled seeds, also measured in the quarters. Accordingly, the volume of the product (grain) obtained per unit area of \u200b\u200bsowing, calculated as a multiple value itself, i.e. The volume of seed seed on this land unit, and indicated the yield.

We note immediately that to compare the grain yield, represented by the weight ratio of the collected bread per unit area (be it pounds from tithing or kilograms from hectares), with a yield, a pronounced attitude of the volume of collected and seed bread (himself), without the use of a special calculation techniques is almost impossible . And even a new system of measures proposed by CSK since the 1880s could not be retrospectively distributed over an earlier period 3; The complexity of the recalculation was "multilayer".

Based on the above, we can introduce such an accounting category as the weight itself, with which you can automatically carry out the translation of the traditional Russian measure of the yield - so much in modern weight categories of yields
- kg / ha. The weight itself is the amount of product (pronounced in kg / ha), corresponding yields of Sam-1.

As can be seen, the weight itself is functionally dependent on a quarterly filling of a quarter, which changes during the economic process and which for each historical period still needs to be determined. But it depends not only from this. Another determinant weight itself are specifications seeding
- the density of the seeding of this culture per unit area of \u200b\u200bsowing (and the seeding density for each culture was "its own" and also changed from the province to the province).

So, historically in the Russian village on the weight itself, two forces were affected, the vectors of the changes were sent to the opposite directions. On the one hand, the weighting of the weight filling of the weighted average quarter (about the causes of this phenomenon, see below) entail an increase in the weight of the All-Russian herself, is functionally connected with it, and, on the other hand, a decrease in seeding lugs per unit area led to a reduction in weight itself. The direction of the general trend was determined by the resultant vector of these opposing influences.

According to the "Varked Information Code", you can track the following tendency in changes in the relationship between the two technical parameters of grain production, namely: the inverse relationship between changes in the weight filling of a quarter, on the one hand, and changes in seeding lugs, or the volume of exiled seeds per unit area, with Another (see, for example, the dynamics of the corresponding weather indicators presented in the Appendix-2 table, by cultures and the provinces of the regions of traditional Russian farming, - the central industrial and central agricultural. Much more clearly, more definitely, this trend has been manifested in the scale of Russian agriculture, In general; see Table. III-Z. On regional and national aspects of this dependency, see below).

The higher the weight filling of a quarter, the more there was an area that could be sown with one quarter. This meant that the volume of grain (measured in the quarters), sowed per unit area, changed in the inverse proportion to the weight filling of a quarter: after all, the higher the weight of the quarter, the less the quarters of the grain of this species needed to be used to set the unit of the area. And vice versa, than the thick of the seed was, the more quarters of the grain were required to set the unit of the square. At the same time, the simple fact was to be taken into account that in order to optimize agricultural production, the peasants were to sow arable land, based on the existing climatic and soil production conditions that demanded the areas of different amounts of grain to sewers on the same in size.

As a result, the weight itself, dependent on the product of two variables, the weight filling of the quarter and the indicator of the seeding vectors, the changes vectors of which are directed relative to each other in opposite sides, - hesitated significantly less than each of these variables. The yield, expressed in kg / ha, in weather movement changed even less than those calculated in the honeycomb.

Here we track another pattern: historically the amount of collected grain, measured in the honeycomb, per unit of the volume of the sinking grain (yield itself is so much) on average in Russia increased, and the weight itself declined. Hence the smaller change in the value of the yield, a pronounced attitude of kg / ha. As a result, with an increase in the yield, measured in the honeycomb, its value, expressed in kg / ha, could even be maintained at the same level on a very extended segment of historical time. Thus, the average annual growth rate of grain yield, expressed in himself, for the period 1801-1861. Makes up in accordance with the trend of its weather speakers, calculated by the alb. L. Weinstein, 0.04% 4. This indicator coincides with the value calculated by the authors of this work for the period 1795-1867. The average rate of increase in yield, a pronounced attitude of kg / ha, is for this period (-) 0.001% per year, i.e. Close to zero mark (see Table II-6, Fig. II-1 5).

We also note that in the "crop of crop information" developed by CSK, the measurement of yield was carried out - for the period from 1883 to 1915 - in two methods (line: "Quarter
myself, "and line:" PUD-TINTY "). Taken together, these data allowed to establish a quantitative relationship between similar (unambiguous) parameters in the systematic observations of the CSK of the provisions of Russia (see Appendix-2).

Thus, the dependences considered above can be expressed by the following formulas:

WCAM - NFEVTV. X of the WCHTVE (where WCAM - the weight itself, expressed in kg / ha; Nichtv. - Number of quarters of grain, sightened to one hectare (or weighted average of the "basket" of cultures the value of this indicator); WCHTV. - Filling a quarter, expressed in kg ( Or weighted on the "basket" of cultures value of this indicator). Accordingly:

Υ ha \u003d ycam x wcam, where yg is a yield, expressed in kg / ha, ycam - yield, expressed in himself, WCAM - the weight itself, expressed in kg / ha.

Systemic studies of the long-term dynamics of the yield of grain crops began in Russia at the end of the XIX century., At the same time, the issues of statistical estimates of yield began to be investigated, including the transfer of old Russian (volume) yield measures into weights of their analogues (existing at the time). By the end of the XIX century. The state accounting of grain crops, based on systematic statistical observations, was already quite well established, and the method of selective (trial) shots 6 was used to evaluate the yield.

Let us touch briefly organizing the statistical accounting of grain bread fees in Russia in the XIX century. In the statement of A.S. Nifontova 7. Already from the second half of the XVIII century. Free Economic Society regularly conducted personal surveys of agriculture in Russia. In the XIX century The organization of accounting takes an even more systemic look. So, statistical accounting for agricultural land was carried out by three departments: this is the Ministry of the Interior (Ministry of Internal Affairs), in the conduct of which there were all landlords and valid agricultural land in the provinces (59% of all grain crops in 1860), Ministry of State Property (MGI) In the jurisdiction of which there were all agricultural land of state peasants on stateless lands (38%), and the department's department, which carried out observations of the economies of specific and palace peasants (3%). Annual provincial reports were compiled on the total data of these three departments. It is believed that the most accuracy was the difference in the data provided by MGI and the departments. As for the statistical information of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, assembled by representatives of the police, and in the early stages - the emissary of the General Staff, then, since these reports were used, among other things, and to collect taxes, data on grain fees could be understated by some districts. But most Russian acgrarian scientists of the 20th century believe that in general, the provincial reports give a fairly accurate picture of grain bread fees in European Russia, and those mentioned inaccuracies are smoothed by the uniformity of the techniques and the latitude of the sample both by the districts of each province and in all provinces of Russia as a whole; as well as repeatability from year to year methodology for collecting statistical data in the XIX century.

Since the beginning of the 1980s, the Central Statistical Committee begins to keep the systematic accounting of the grain yield on the lands of all types, and, as already mentioned, at once in two systems of measures - old Russian volumetric (self-so much) and modern (for that period) weight and stomen (First, until 1887, a quarter / tenth, then since 1888, - PUD / TIN).

Of the special work available these days, we will pay attention primarily to the study of the dynamics of RJ yields from 1800 to 1889, carried out by A.F. Fortunate 8. He was actually the first one who tried to draw up a long retrospective range of yields per unit area (tithe). It was conducted a comparative analysis of the yields of rye for all major statistical sources of that time (Zemskaya statistics, provincial reports, materials of the Central Statistical Committee of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia). In particular, A. Fortunate was established by the fact: Data CSK on yields rye is about 7% exceed the data of the provincial reports. Run ahead, we note that this discrepancy prompted V.G. Mikhailovsky clarify their ranks of the yield, compiled by the provincial reports, in order to compare them with the data of the CSK. A.F. Fortunates also investigated the influence of various factors (both agrotechnical and climatic and socio-economic) on the dynamics of the yield of rye.

But for practical work to use the data A.F. Fortunatova is not possible. These data were obtained on the basis of surveys of individual farms, and until the middle of the XIX century, a number of the author on the yield of rye was built on a single entry regarding mainly landlord economies, where the yield indicators were obviously higher than the average in Russia. The fact that due to uneven (by the number of surveyed farms) samples for various periods (decades) of the XIX century. It is impossible to carry out correct comparisons of the yield dynamics on the time cut in the century, drew the attention of Alb.L. Weinstein in his work on the evolution of the yield of grain breads in Russia 9.

A number of practical proposals on the transfer of the calculus of the yield of grain crops on the remedy method of measurement amounted to a major specialist in the theory of agricultural statistics P.A. Wihlyaev 10. But due to the multiplicity of factors affecting the coefficients of transportation of yields from some measures to other, "multilayer" character of dependencies between these measures, the complexity of computational work (in the absence of high-speed computing devices), the use of the proposed scientific methods for the purposes of retrospective development analysis did not receive.

In 1921 V.G. Mikhailovsky made a solid number of crop yields, expressed in himself, from 1801 to 1914 to 60 provinces of Russia 11. According to informative saturation and temporary extent, this series still has no equal. In compiling this series, the scientist used the statistics of the provincial reports for the period 1801-1882. and data CSK for 1883-1914. At the same time V.G. Mikhailovsky Accounting Recommendations made by A.F. Fortunate, about the method of overcoming the incompatibility of statistical information collected by various statistical departments (see above). So, in the compilation of a number of cumulative grain yield for 1801-1882. It increased the values \u200b\u200bof the original indicators obtained from the provincial reports by 6.3% in order to compare them with data for 1883-1914, developed by CSK. M.I. Semenov 12 in the future, analyzing the row of V.G. Mikhailovsky, confirmed the legality of the clarifications made by the latter (a uniform increase in the indicators of the entire row by 6.3% for 1801-1882), adding importance to it (expressed in himself - so much) for 1915, but revised the values \u200b\u200bof the grain yield for 1840 , 1842, 1843. (At the same time, M.I. Semenov relied on the estimates A.F. Fortunatov, concerning the yields of only one bread, although the main thing then in Russia, - rye). For our study, a number of cereal yields were used (in the self-so much) from 1801 to 1915, compiled by V.G. Mikhailovsky and refined M.I. Semenov (see Table II-7) 13. This series is supplemented by our H.Ji data. Rubinstein in 1795

From the works of historians the second half of the 20th century, said Fundamental study of A.S. should be allocated Nifontova. The material contained in it is grain harvests in 50 provinces of European Russia in 1851-1900. It is based as in B. Mikhailovsky, on the "applications to the annual reports of the governors" - for 1851-1882, and data CSK - for 1883-1900. Moreover, the statistics of grain yields according to the provincial reports are given in its original form (i.e. not corrected according to the method proposed by A. Fortunate). For the correlating of Mikhailovsky's data with the original data of the CSK, given in the book A.S. Nifontova 14, according to CSK, the yield of cereals was calculated (in the self-so much) for the period 1883-1900. Both rows were actually identical (weather discrepancies were 0-3%).

How the main parameters of the grain production were changed, which are directly related to the calculations of the coefficients of the transfer of yields, expressed in the self-so much, in the yield, calculated by the ratio of kg / ha, for the more than a century-old period of historical time (from the end of the XVIII century before the beginning of XX .)?

The structure of the sowing areas occupied by grain.

In assessing changes in this parameter, the authors relied on the work of H.ji. Rubinstein 15, B.N. Mironova 16, N.D. Kondratyeva 17, statistical materials published by the Ministry of Agriculture of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. The data of these sources reduced into a single table show the following pattern of changes in the structure of grain crops (see Table II-1).

Table II-1

Russia: Distribution of seeds under four main breadcrumbs *,%

* Compiled and calculated by: Rubinstein H.ji. Russia's agriculture in the second half of the XVIII century. M., 1957. P. 444-453 [Data for 1795]; Mironov B.N. Bread prices in Russia in two centuries (XVIII - XIX centuries). Ji.: "Science", 1985. P. 44 [Data for 1801-1900 /; Kondratyev N.D. Bread market

and his regulation during the war and revolution. M.: Nauka, 1991. P. 89 Idata for 1901-1905]; Collection of statistic and economic information on agriculture of Russia and foreign countries. Petrograd, 1917. P. 60-61 [Data for 1906-1915].

Note: B.N. Mironov in their work "Bread Prices in Russia" (p.44) shows the structure of the distribution of sowing areas under various grain crops for 1801-1840. and 1841-1880, estimated by the number of quarters of sown grain. A.S.Nifontov convincingly proved that such relations cannot be determined by the number of fourtached quarters;) then, in his opinion, leads to "serious distortions of the ratio of crops of different breads": after all, the weight filling of a quarter of each culture is different (see: nifides . "" The grain production of Russia in the second half of the XIX century. "S. 169-170). The author illustrates: when measuring the area of \u200b\u200bgrain volume measures (expressed in quarters) on Oats in the 70s of the XIX century. It accounted for more than a third of the total seeding of grain in Russia, "although its share on average was only about one quarter weight of the entire mass of the sighted grain. As a result, the area under the "heavy" bread was underestimated (in the 70s - more than 8%).

Another method for calculating the structure of bread crops is more accurate, in our opinion, it assumes the correlation of the volumes of snowy grain with a dense of the seeding of each grain culture included in the studied grain "basket". In other words, each indicator of the total volume of the singered grain (pronounced in the quarters) of a certain culture should be divided into an average magnitude of the seeding of this culture (in our case, a pronounced ratio of a quarter / ha), only after that it is possible to determine the real ratio of areas under various breads. Taking into account the 1801-1840 GGs calculated by us. and 1841-1880 The average density of the seeding of each culture and the indicators of the structure of bread sowing during these periods were adjusted.

Two change periods are tracked. The first of them, with a length of almost in century - from the 90s of the XVIII century. Until the 80s of the XIX century, it is characterized by stagnantly sluggish (very weak) the tempo of changes in the main (leading) serenities of grain production. So, indicators swelling Sowing the two most common cultures - rye and oats decreased by the beginning of the 80s of the XIX century. From 82.1% to 74.3% of the cumulative sown area, which occurred on the marked four breads, or by 9%. On the contrary, wheat and barley gradually increased their "representation" in the structure of grain crops from 17.9 to 25.7%, or by more than 40% (see Table II-1).

The second period, covering the following three decades, before the beginning of the First World War (1914-1918), marked the seal of very large changes in the structure of the sowing square under the grain. These changes began to gain momentum from the 80s of the XIX century. And significantly increased since the 90s. This era loudly announced a new factor of economic dynamics - a sharp increase in the demand of the global market on Russian grain, primarily wheat and barley. Strong impulses to accelerating the perestroika of the grain wedge Agriculture of Russia received from a rapidly developed domestic market. Wheat and barley crops won all the new space in the southern and southeastern regions of the country, and, considered in the All-Russian context, wheat culture displaced both Oats ("Little", but "thick" culture) and rye ("heavy", but "Rare" culture) (see Table II-1). The degree of its "aggressiveness" is evidenced by numerous facts. So, since the 80s of the XIX century. Wheat culture was rapidly spread in the Uralsky and Nizhnevolzhsky districts, here in three decades sowing areas under wheat increased 3-4 times; In the area of \u200b\u200bthe North Caucasus, such areas for the same period rose 2.5-3 times. At the beginning of the 20th century, a wave of wheat expansion was sought to the Central Agricultural District, in particular, to the Voronezh province, where the crops of this culture increased 2 times (see Appendix-2).

For a decade, 1906-1915. Sowing wedge of wheat culture was first compared with the area of \u200b\u200bsowing rye, and then and significantly surpassed it. By the beginning of World War II, wheat entered the leading position in grain production, occupying more than a third of the square under the main breads of Russia (see Table II-1). All this predetermined, we note, run forward, intensive weighting of the weight of the average Russian quarter, which happened in the 1980s of the XIX century. - 10th year of the XX century. (see Table. II-3)

Filling quarters. For this parameter, we do not have any data relating to the period to the revolution produced by the Central Statistical Committee of Russia in the system of statistical accounting of agricultural production (the beginning of the 80s of the XIX century). Available data, extremely poorly related numbers related to individual provinces, different, as a rule, "point" time segments of the XIX century, expressed in old Russians (i.e. untranslatable in the metric system) measures, do not allow creating a holistic all-Russian figure of the dynamics of this parameter .

Under these conditions, we counted justifiable, taking into account the type of changes in all other "countable" parameters of Russian agriculture from the end of the 18th century. before the early 80s of the XIX century. (including the dynamics of the yield, the nature of the change in the structure of sowing, seeding lugs - about the last parameter, see below), as well as historical trends in the distribution of various grain crops in areas, extrapolate to the entire depth of this period covering nine decades, the values \u200b\u200bof the quarterly filling rate of the quarter, Mounted TsSK Russia for 1888-1892. eighteen . But taking into account the changes that the macro-economic transformation of the following three, "active", decades - the end of the XIX - early XX V.V. contributed to its dynamics. In particular, in order to bring the indicator of the extrapolated value of the weight of a quarter to the true period from the mid-90s of the XVIII century. until the beginning of the 80s of the XIX century, we calculated the values \u200b\u200bof the values \u200b\u200bof the quarterly filling of a quarter of the North Caucasus area (the area of \u200b\u200bthe Donors, the province of Kuban and Stavropol), which was noted, became intensively deployed in the past decades. XIX century, especially since the 90s. The factor of the Northern Caucasus was included in our calculus of the weight filling of a quarter in relation to the period from the beginning of the 80s of the XIX century. (1883) until the mid-10th of the XX century. (1915). Below are the weighted average values \u200b\u200bof the quarterly filling of a quarter in four major grain cultures of 20 provinces of European Russia for the period 1888-1913. (See Table. ιι-2).

Table II - 2.
Russia: the weight content of a quarter to four main breadcrumbs, 1888-1913. *, kg.

1 Without the provinity of the North Caucasus.

2 here and lower taking into account the provinces of the North Caucasus.

3 Such a significant increase in the weight filling of a quarter of the barley culture is caused by the fact that the two provinces (the area of \u200b\u200bthe Don and Kuban troops) focused since the 90s of the XIX century. The main mass of the production of barley, and in these two provinces, the weight filling of the quarters of the barley was, for example, in 1913, 146-159 kg, against 126 kg on average for all the rest of the provinces. We, however, believe that the real weight of the quarter of the barley at the beginning of the XX century. It was in general in Russia somewhat less, due to the possible failure in our sample of the provinces middle strip With their small bunch of barley and the smaller weighing "barley" quarter.

As can be seen, a significant change was subjected to a quarter of a quarter of oats culture, wheat and, especially barley, a quarter of the traditional and historically most massive in the Russian farming of culture - rye did not change.

In long-term changes in the parameter under consideration, two historical stages differ in the type of change dynamics can be distinguished. The first stage, lengthless in the century - from the mid-90s of the 18th century. Before the beginning of the 80s of the XIX century, the step of changes in the "running place" type. (For 85 years, the weighted average of a quarter increased by only 1.6%; see Table II-3.) The second stage covering the 80s of the XIX century. - The 10ths of the XX century, on the contrary, demonstrates the rapid weight gain of the quarter; For three and a half decades, the weight filling of the weighted average quarter across Russia increased to 136.3 kg - by 7.5% (see Table II-3). This process was connected, as noted above, with expansion to the southern and southeastern outskirts of Russia, the production of grain, mainly wheat ("heavy" culture) and barley, the quality of the grain of which (determined the weight filling of a quarter) here was significantly different than in Central Russia: the latter, as we have seen, was essentially the type of "heavy" grain.

Table II-3

Russia: Dynamics of some technical parameters of grain production, 1795 - 1915. *

* Calculated by: data Table. II-1, as well as tables of Appendix-2 (indicators of the weight filling of a quarter and seeding of cultures).

1 Weighted average indicator in four cultures.

2 The indicator is obtained by multiplying the values \u200b\u200bof columns 2 and 3. The average value of the indicator values \u200b\u200bare given here; Due to the error of rounding, they may not coincide (by about 0.3%) with its average weather values \u200b\u200bshown in Table. II-1.

In an increase in the weight of the quarter, the technological factor has also played a role. In the "old" agricultural districts (Central Industrial District and the Central Agricultural District) soon after the abolition of serfdom, the processes of technological improvements in agriculture were outlined, which were acquired from the first years of the XX century. Before the eve of the First World War (1914-1918) 19. Transformations in agricultural technologies were accompanied by a stable, pronounced positive trend, the trend of the yield of grain bread to growth. The era of such a progressive movement covered in Russia for almost five decades (1867-1915) (see Fig. II-7).

Sewage. This parameter also refers to the category of RARA AVIS ("Rare Bird"), it is "classified" by history as reliably as the "Weight Filling Quarter" parameter. Therefore, for the purpose of calculating a continuous number of yield data in metric measures, covering the age-old period, the missing values \u200b\u200bof this parameter had to be calculated, of course, when the existing real data is supported. The complexity of the calculations of this indicator in its all-Russian version was also determined by the fact that in its age-old dynamics, two processes were reflected - first, a decrease in seeding density for each culture as a result of the improvement of traditional agrotechnical techniques within "old" agricultural districts (separate province, group The provinces), and, secondly, the decrease in the average Russian seeding luxury as a result of the spread of extensive grain production in the southern province, where the seeding density of all grain crops was significantly less than in the northern (see Appendix-2). The second process begins to provide a particularly strong influence from the 80s of the XIX century.

Adequate data on the change in the indicator of the seeding of seeding, the authors have only for the period 1883-1915. There are also data L. .B. Milova at the end of the XVIII century. (1797) in the five provinces of the Central Industrial and Central Agricultural Areas (Moscow, Tverskaya, Tula, Orlovskaya, Kursk provinces) 20. Comparison of both series of data for these provinces for the period 1797-1883. It shows that the seeding density for each culture has decreased, however, very slowly (see Appendix-2). So, the indicator of the seeding of the main culture

Rye on average five provinces decreased in 1797-1883. Only 6.6%, oats culture - by 7.8%, wheat, which turned into these provinces into a marginal ("disappearing") culture - by 20.6%, barley - by 6.5%; On average, the seeding density in all major bread decreased by 7.4%. During this period, the reduction in seeding density - according to individual cultures, and in the region as a whole, was determined mainly by the first factor - the improvement of traditional technologies, and such a reduction took place when crops with rare sowing - rye, wheat and barley were partially replaced by sowing Culture with thick summing

Oats. In particular, during the period under review, the distribution of crops area under four main breads in these five provinces changed as follows: Rye in 1883 began to take 57.3% of this area, against 60.4% in 1795; Oats - 38.3% in 1883, against 30.4% in 1795; Wheat - 1.3%, versus 3.1%; Barley - 3.1%, against 6.1% 21.

In the period 1883-1915. The process of reducing seeding density occurred much faster (see Table. II-3): The second factor was introduced, which influenced the seeding luxury - the rapid expansion of sowing in the southern provinces, in particular in the North Caucasian area, where the seeding density was especially low (see . Appendix-2).

Table II-4
Russia: the density of the seeding of four main bread crops, 1797-1913. *, quarter / ha

* Calculated by: Application data-2.
If the indicator of changes in the weighted average seeding thickness in four major cultures in the five mentioned provinces taken together, for the period 1797-1883. -7.4% to take an effective time for all European Russia, and for the period 1883-1913. Use the accurate data of the "crops" of twenty provinces, quite reliably representing this part of Russia, the dynamics of the parameter under consideration will look like this (see Table II-4) 22.

Of course, the above estimates of the seeding lubrications in cultures until 1883 are approximate, but their changes for the period up to the beginning of the 80s are quite amenable to rational explanation, given the features of technological techniques for the optimization of grain production in the traditional economy of the then Russia. In subsequent calculations, we proceed from the trend values \u200b\u200bof the change in the decrease in the seeding indicator until 1883 and the exact values \u200b\u200bof its statistical series for the period 1883-1915.

Total for the period 1797-1915. The weighted average of the seeding lugouts on the square occupied by the sowing of four main bread, decreased in Russia by almost one quarter (23.4%) (see Table II-3).

Table II-5
Russia: Annual exponential pace of changes of some technical parameters Grain production and measures used in it, 1795-1915. %

* Compiled by: Table data. II-1, II-3.

We note the possibility of another line of estimates of the Russian yield associated with changes in seeding changes. The fact that we do not observe the above mentioned phenomena of the inverse relationship between changes in the weight filling of quarters and changes in seeding phenomena indicate (although it is possible only indirectly) that technological transformation began and occurred in traditional Russian agriculture - and by districts (provinces), and by cultures (see Appendix-2). In particular, as can be seen from the "Crawling of Harvest Information", at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries, the grain farming of the southern provinces, where the extensive virgin (and sealing) lands of steppes were actively mastered, was not yet drawn into the historical process of intensification of agriculture, passing the extensive phase Growth. In covered by the statistical information of the "Arch", the Epoch of the Liberal branches of the agriculture of Russia were, apparently, at the very beginning of modern technological transformations of intensive type.

The data reduced into a single table on the rates of quantitative changes considered above the "countable" parameters of the grain production of Russia for the period 1795-1915. Led in Table. II-5.

Weight itself. Throughout the XIX century (and later - at the beginning of the XX century.) The weight itself had a tendency to reduce: he became more and more "easy." The ratios between determinant parameters, its weight dynamics determined, - the weight content of quarters and the delicate of seeding, historically developed in favor of negative changes in weight itself (see Table. P-s). But in the periods, the pace of these changes differed in a very large extent. Its sluggish negative dynamics during the first eight decades of the XIX century. (The decrease of 0.04% on average per year) was replaced by the active reduction process in the second period (80s of the XIX century - the middle of the 10th of the 20th century), while the rate of reduction accelerated 5.5 times ( See Table. II-5).

We now have to estimate the dynamics of the yield of the grain crops of Russia (on the example of the yield of the three main grain breads), a pronounced indicator of kg / ha, in comparison with the change in the yield of grain crops fixed in himself, for the period from the end of the XVIII century. before the beginning of the XX century.

As noted above, between the dynamic rows of yield, expressed in himself, on the one hand, and metric measures - kg / ha, on the other, there was no compliance; Or, if we say otherwise, during the long-term growth dynamics, the yield, measured by weight measures, and the yield measured by the volume measures varied by substantially different algorithms: a number of values \u200b\u200bexpressed in himself changed in the period under review of the period of historical time for more significant quantities, than a number of values \u200b\u200bcalculated in kg / ha. So, during 1867-1915. The average annual rate of yield growth, pronounced volume measures, was 0.92%, while such a rate of variation changes, pronounced weight measures - only 0.7%. But at the same time, the second indicator underwent noticeably greater acceleration than the first, i.e. the average annual rate of changes in the yield, pronounced measurements of volume; In relation to the period 1867-1915. Both pace indicator correlated in a ratio of 2: 2.3. It can be assumed that in the remote run, the values \u200b\u200bof both paces can be compared (about the degree of intensity of changes in both rows of indicators for one hundred and twenty years, see Table II-6).

Table II-6
Russia: Annual exponential rate of change in the yield of grain crops, 1795-1915. *,%

* Compiled by: Table data. II-7.
As for the historical dynamics of the yield of grain bread, expressed in metric measures, in the agricultural sector of Russia, you can track two clearly designated periods during the period under review. During the first seventy years, covering the final stage of serfdom in Russia, the yield of grain bread, expressed in the metric system of measures, was characterized by absolute stagnation, or - more precisely - a long-term trend of yield, although microscopic on the power of manifestation, to fall (the rate of this fall was, As noted above, (-\u003e 0.001% on average per year); The intention of the trend function in this negative process was designated in 1867. - year, belonging to the era, to determine the well-known Russian historian N.M. Druzhinina, "FRAME" in The socio-economic evolution of the Russian village 23 (see Fig. II-1 and Table. II-6, as well as Table.II-9).

A strip of progressive changes in the increases of bread yields, outlined in the late 60s of the XIX century, continued in the 70s, and in the 80s, and at first the 90s in the grain production of the country there was a leap, expressed in the increase in yield In the amount of weights, the values \u200b\u200bare weighty - on average 1% per year (see Fig. II-1 and Table. II-6); This jump was interrupted by war in the middle of the 10th of the XX century.

Below we give the values \u200b\u200bof the yield of grain bread, expressed in the self-so much (a number of V.G. Mikhailovsky with clarifications M.I. Semenov), and the same row, calculated by us in metric measures - c / ha - according to the above formula 24 ( See Table. II-7).

Naturally the question: to what extent the researcher can rely on the above calculated number of yield values \u200b\u200bextending on historic periodcovering more than a century? How reliable are these data?

To assess the degree of reliability of the proposed calculus, we can by direct comparison (analysis) of two parallel (and independent of each other by the calculus method) of the rows of the yield values \u200b\u200bof bread in European Russia in two decades - 1896-1915: on the one hand, a number developed by official statistical bodies of that time (these are mentioned CSK, the Department of Savings and Statistics of the Ministry of Agriculture) and expressed in weights and square (PUD / Ten), which can be adequate ("automatically") to the metric system; And on the other hand, a series calculated in the current metric system of measures based on old Russian measures (self-so much) (a number of V.G. Mikhailovsky with the additions of M.I. Semenov) on the formula proposed above. This comparison showed that both rows of yield values \u200b\u200bare in very closely compliance. Deviations of estimated values \u200b\u200bfrom real (statistical bodies of developed) are expressed by the following values \u200b\u200b(see Table II-8).

Russia: the yield of grain bread in 1795-1915 * * table II-7.

* Compiled and calculated by: Column 2 - Mikhailovsky V.G. Abstracts of the report "Harvests in Russia 1801-1914", V: CSB Bulletin. 1921, №50. P. 4, Table. 1. The column 4 was obtained by multiplying the values \u200b\u200bof columns 2 and 3, followed by the division of the results obtained by 100 - to transfer the yield measures from kg / ha in c / ha.

1 Calculated by: Rubinstein H.ji. Russia's agriculture in the second half of the XVIII century. M., 1957. P. 444-453. The calculation was carried out on 22 provinces of European Russia.

2 Evaluation M.I. Semenova, see: Semenov M.I. On the question of the patterns of vintage fluctuations, in: Bulletin of statistics. 1922. KN. XI, No. 5-8. P. 74.90-91.

During the period of two decades, the average deviation of a number of estimated values \u200b\u200bfrom a number of real values \u200b\u200bwas 2%. This error, underlying the norms, is based on the statistical calculations, arose as we believe, from incomplete docularity of the source used to calculate data, and may also be due to the fact that both covered by statistical observations, spaces (or territory ) The production of grain breads differed significantly in terms of their size (we will remind, a number of Mikhailovsky were calculated on the basis of yields of 60 provinces of Russia, and a number of CSK-Ministry of Agriculture - on the basis of similar data on 50 provinces, and the data of only 20 provinces We were subjected to statistical analysis).

Table II-8

Real and calculated values \u200b\u200bof yield and their differences, 1896-1915. *

* Compiled and calculated by: data Table. II-7 and II-10.

But we will not lose sight of an important circumstance. As evidenced by the experience of the agricultural practice of Russia, the huge agricultural space of the country with his abundance natural zones, with a huge rapid variety of changing weather conditions (favorable, moderately favorable, unfavorable, bad, etc.), he spent in itself a factor in a kind of leveling, "smoothing" of the all-Russian painting of bread yields, and not only in the statics (i.e. estimated by The state of this particular time, for example, year), but also in the dynamics. Thus, according to the Central Committee of Agriculture, which was given by A. Finn-Enotayevsky, for the period of fifteen years - from 1896 to 1910. The average rejection of a number of values \u200b\u200bof the yield of all breads produced in 50 provinces of European Russia, from a number of values \u200b\u200bof their yields In 72 provisions of Russia, amounted to only 2.2% 25.

The yield of grain in the USSR compared to the Russian Empire rose from 6-7 centners / ha at the end of its existence to 15 c / ha at the end of the existence of Soviet power. That is, two to two and a half times. The main rise fell on the reign of Khrushchov and Brezhnev - due to the chemicalization of agriculture and the use of new grain varieties. (In Russian exercise, the wheat is massively produced in the climatic conditions, from which white bread is obtained, and rye, from which black bread turns out; white bread was "for the Lord"; Introduction to the daily use of people white bread - So, he almost replaced his bread black - this is the merit of the conscience; However, there are also disadvantages: rye would give more abundant yields in Russia and less considerable to climatic conditions). And at the same time, the USSR, we recall, still imported somewhere 20 million tons of grain per year! And the grains lacked the USSR to develop their own animal husbandry - that is, first of all for the production of meat. Increased yield during Putin's reign - it seems to be the result of favorable climatic conditions: after all chemical fertilizers Reduced, sowing areas decreased, the security of the village was worsened by agricultural machinery - from which then the harres would increase. So while Putin is lucky with the weather. It also can be seen that the degradation (i.e., the elimination of "strong owners") and collectivization, as well as the massive scope of livestock (which resulted in a decrease in the number of obtained organic fertilizers) On average, almost no way affected the crop yields - that is, on the efficiency of the management. It should also be considered that the increase in the yroatisti "eaten" an increase in population - so that, on average, the growth of grain production in Russia was not so significant; However, the increase in production of grain still overlapped the growth of the population.
Tako explain: how did the Russian Empire of the devils fed from the whole world exporting bread and from what basis during Putin Russia again began to export grain, if the USSR at the end of its existence imported 20 million tons of grain and was not enough for the development of animal husbandry at the end of its existence? ! The answer is simple: "unfinion, but take out." This principle, apparently, and adhered to St. Nicholas II and its predecessors on the throne.

The original is taken by W. polit_ec In the yield of breads in Russia for 200 years

Who knows how many centners from hectare is the harvest "Sam-six"? What progress the Russian peasants have achieved after the cancellation of serfdom and what Stalinsky collective farmers? Interesting data on grain yields in our country for the period from 1795 to 2007 were published in an academic monograph: Crowbanikov V.G., Derdygina I.V. Bread yields in Russia. M., 2009. This is no longer the first work of famous specialists on the problems of the history of agricultural statistics. It is assembled and analyzed a huge array of information that allows you to trace the trends of such the most important indicatorlike grain yield, more than two centuries of Russian history.

For historical comparisons, it is extremely important to use comparable data. Meanwhile, the method of agricultural statistics in our country has repeatedly changed.

It is known that the royal statistics significantly underestimated the real volumes of production. The problems of accounting were also affected, and the reluctance of peasants to disclose the "bosses" the true situation of their farms. On the contrary, the statistics of the Soviet time are known for large-scale registry - and not only individual leaders who wanted to report on the successful implementation of the plan, but also at the state level to prove the advantages of socialism.

For example, in the Stalin's years, a harvest is taken into account, which "represents the entire harvest in the field, to the last grain. This is the harvest that can be assembled, if absolutely absent losses and theft of grain during harvesting and scramble of bread. " In Khrushchev, the time passed to the accounting of the barn harvest - in fact assembled and entered. But since 1966, the category "Collection" was introduced instead, which again led to the "clasp falsification" of statistics. In the last pre-chief years, in the conditions of increasing food difficulties, data on the fees and crop yields disappeared at all disappeared from the pages of the USSR CSS statistical books. The ban on their publication was removed only in 1985.

What does this disaster behave? Quite and nearby can see how one author cites data from pre-revolutionary publications; another of the archival documents of the 30s; The third operates late Soviet statives; And none suspects how much the calculation methods used in these sources differ. It is clear that there can be no speech about any intelligible comparison. Therefore, the monograph in question, where information about the yield, which is called, is "given to a common denominator," is of tremendous interest.

I can not naturally go past my favorite topic - comparisons Russian Empire and Stalin's USSR. The book analyzes the dynamics of yield in different historical epochs.

Since the end of the 18th century, and before the cancellation of serfdom, the average yield of grain in Russia has not grew. From the 1860s to the revolution itself, a steady increase in yield was observed, and by the end of the period he walked around the increasing. The most vintage years of the Russian Empire is the legendary 1913 and ... Military 1915.

With the establishment of Soviet power, the growth of yields again stopped three more than decades. There was such an old anecdote: how to decipher the name of the VKP batch (b)? Answer: Second serfdom (Bolsheviks). If you judge the dynamics of grain yield, in this joke there is a large proportion of truth. Soviet power, as well as serfdom, led to the stagnation of yield.

Only from the mid-1950s, the yield began to sustainably exceed the indicators of pre-revolutionary Russia. If before this level of 1913 was surpassed exactly once, in a fabulous yield of 1937, the next time this happened in 1956, and after 1964, Soviet yields never fell below 1913. Chemistry finally got to Russia. But, as in other areas of life, the Soviet government led to a loss of 30 years for the development of our country.

Since 1979, a new period of stagnation began, which continued until the end of the 1990s. In the same period, the difficulties in the economy are growing, in food supply, in ensuring the standard of living of people who eventually led Soviet Union To crash. And only from 2000, together with the general rise of the economy of Russia, the growth of crops resumed.

Here is the history of Russia in miniature paints us a yield curve. If you think about the coincidence of the trends of the development of agriculture and the whole society is not at all surprising.

For comparison: Wheat yield data in 1914 by the US Department of Agriculture
():

US MCS data (USDA) on crop yields in 2014 in individual countries and on average in the world.

These figures were published in mid-August 2014 at the basis of the scatter of the level of productivity of wheat growing in different countries, there is a natural-climatic factor, the production of grain wheat production, as well as the general technological level of soil cultivation and crops in different regions.

The greatest wheat yield is traditionally marked in Europe: in Germany - at 7.95 t / ha; In the UK - 7.8 t / ha; In France - 7.3 t / ha. Among European outsiders - Bulgaria and Romania with wheat yields, respectively, 4.18 and 3.57 t / ha.

Among the Asian countries in terms of the level of yield, China is allocated, where the hectare is collected more than the average in the world - 5.23 t / ha. On the other side of the Himalayan ridge, in India, wheat yield is much lower - 3.13 t / ha. In the arid countries of the Middle East, wheat yield is even lower: inventory of 1.95 t / ha, in Iran - 1.91 t / ha.

In the US and Canada, wheat yield is almost the same. In 2014/15 S.-H. In the US, wheat yield is projected by 2.95 t / ha, in Canada - 3.01 t / ha.

In Argentina, the yield of grain wheat is comparable - 2.98 t / ha. Regarding these countries, relatively low yields in Australia: in 2013 - 2 t / ha, in 2014 - according to the forecast of 1.88 t / ha.

Among the three major grain Eurasian countries, the highest yield of wheat is marked in Ukraine - 3.49 t / ha. In Russia, yields - 2.48 t / ha. In Uzbekistan, high, wheat yield due to irrigated agriculture, - 4.86 t / ha. And closes this group of Kazakhstan countries. According to the data of the expert group, wheat yields in Kazakhstan more than 3 times lower than its average, namely, - 1.06 t / ha. At the same time, the termal yield of this grain in the world was 3.22 t / ha
__
That is, in Germany, wheat yields - 79 c / ha, and in the UK - 78 c / ha.
But how in Russia managed to get 24 c / ha - it is not clear; Archage, 15 c / ha at the end of the existence of the USSR is, apparently, the average yield of all cereals in general, and not only wheat only.

Here is a wikipedia plate on wheat production
(https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0#.D0.A3.D1.80. .D0.be.d0.b6.d0.bd.d0.b9.d0.bd.d0.be.d1.81.d1.82.d1.8c_.d0.bf.d0.be_.d1.81.d1. .82.d1.80.d0.b0.d0.bd.d0.b0.d0.bc):

Growing grain crops is the most important agricultural industry. These plants give animal feed, industrial raw materials. Grain crops occupy one of the most important places in the food industry.

General classification

Grain farm crops are divided into legumes and bread. For most part, most of them belong to the botanical cereal family. The main grain crops are:

• Millet.
• Sorghum.
• Corn.
• Barley.
• Millet.
• Rye.
• Wheat.
• Buckwheat and others.

The value of plants

Products of grain crops are used to develop animal husbandry and poultry farming. A large amount of nutrients contained in plants contributes to the active growth of livestock, increasing the income. Essential products like pasta and breadfinds, flour, cereals are also produced from the grain. Plants act as raw materials to get starch, alcohol, molasses, and so on.

Chemical composition

Grain crops are rich in carbohydrates and proteins. The latter are present in an amount of from 10 to 16%. Carbohydrates in plants are contained from 55 to 70%. In most grain crops, it is present from 1.5 to 4.5% of fats. In corn and oats it contains about 6%. The percentage of protein in grain crops is inconsistent. Its share depends on the varietal and species features, agrotechnical techniques, climate, weather. Thus, the placement of grain crops in the territories with a continental climate, in areas where there is a lot of light and heat, allows you to get plants with a lot of protein than in areas with soft conditions and rainy weather. In addition, the increase in the content of this compound is noted on the soils rich in phosphorus and nitrogen. Grain crops are rich in vitamins in groups, RR. In the sprouted cereals are contained with, A and D.

The importance of proteins

Of particular value are the compounds that form gluten. The bakery properties of the flour obtained (volume of products, porosity, the elasticity of the test will depend on its quality and quantity. Wheat grain can contain from 16 to 40% raw gluten. In protein bread Zlakov There are amino acids. Among them, there are indispensable - those that are not synthesized in human and animal organism. These, for example, include tryptophan, methionine, lysine and others. These amino acids should enter the body with food. In this regard, the increased their content in cereals is favorable in the state of animals and humans.

Nutritional value

It is measured in feed units. For 1 unit. It is customary to be the feeder of a kilogram of dry oats. Thus, in 1 kg of wheat and rye indicator 1.18, barley - 1.27, corn - 1.34. Nutritional value Kilogram of straw can be from 0.2 (wheat, rye) to 0.3-0.35 (barley, oats) feed unit.

Topical issues of the industry

The annually develop programs to increase the yield of grain crops. However, this is not the only task of the agro-industrial complex today. Along with the increase in raw materials, special attention is paid to its quality. The emphasis is primarily done on the production of grain crops that are most popular in the food and agricultural industry. These include severe and solid wheat, the most important fodder and cereal varieties. Many cereal cereal, such as oats, barley, rye and wheat, have winter and spring forms. They differ from each other in the method of cultivation. The development of wintering is associated with the conditions of wintering. Sowing grain crops are carried out in the fall, and the collection is for the next year. Sneakers can withstand the effect of low temperature only a short period. Planting grain crops in this case is carried out in the spring, and the collection is the same year.

Building: Root system

All grain crops have about the same structure. Root system Makes up a variety of apparent branches that are collected in the lobe (beam). There are germinal (primary) roots and secondary. The latter are formed from stroke nodes located underground. Most of the roots are developing in arable land (upper) layer of land. Inland the soil penetrate only some branches: corn, rice, oats and barley - 100-150 cm, rye and wheat - 180-200 cm, from sorghum - by 200-250 cm. When germinated, grain first generates primary roots. From underground stem nodes, secondary branches begin to develop. With sufficient water, they begin to grow enough quickly. Machion primary roots does not occur. They perform a major role in the delivery of moisture and nutrients by land parts. Sorghum and corn from the aboveground nodes closest to the surface are formed by air (supporting) roots.

Stem

It is called solomina. Grain crops, as a rule, have hollow stem with 5-6 nodes separating it to interstices. Solvin can reach height from 50 to 200 cm - it depends on biological features varieties and conditions for its growth. Corn and sorghum have a stem with a height of 3-4 or more meters. However, the high height is not always considered the dignity of the variety. This is due to the fact that with a long stem, resistance to lodging is reduced.

The number of intersals coincides with the number of leaves. The first to grow is the lowest, then everything follows. The stem develops by all interstices. The top to the end of development becomes longer than the lower. In solid wheat and corn, the stem is filled with spongy cloth. The lower part is immersed in the soil along with the nodes. Of these, roots and secondary stems are formed. This part is called the node of the Partition. With his damage, the plant dies.

Leaves and inflorescence

Grain crops can have linear (rice, oats, rye, wheat), medium (barley) or wide (millet, sorghum, corn) leaves. Also, they are distinguished depending on the location. Leaves can be stable, roasting (sockets) and germs. All of them consist of a vagina, which covers the stem, and records. In the area where the vagina goes into the record, the tongue is located - a film education. In triticale, barley, rye, wheat inflorescence is a complex spider. Rice, sorghum, millet and oats have a pancake. On one plant, corn is formed by a mopka, in which men's flowers (sultans) are present, and the pillage where women's flowers are located. In the spike, the rod is released. On both sides, small spikelets are alternately formed on both sides. There are branches 1, 2 and 3rd order in the panicle. At their ends also place spikelets. Flowers are small. As a rule, they are greenish. Two flakes stand out in the flowers: inner and outer (in the oestic forms it goes to Ax). Inside them is a pestle. It consists of a wound, in which there are three stamens and two peristy stigs. Grain crops have rim flowers. Their amount in the spikelet is different.

Fetus

As it serves a single-headed grain, called grain. Sorghum, rice, barley, oats and millet fruits are covered with scales. Wheat grain top covers seed shell. Under it is an endosperm - a mild fabric. It provides nutrition plants in the process of germination. Endosperm contains about 22% protein and 80% of carbohydrates from the total grain mass. Under the shell, on the left in the lower corner, there are an embryonic root and tieney.

Seeds of grain crops: stability

Dry fruits do not lose their germination even after staying in liquid hydrogen. Thus, they withstand cooling to -250 degrees. At the same time, germinating grain does not tolerate the temperature -3 ... -5 degrees. Fruits have high drought resistance. They retain their vitality even in cases when they lose almost all moisture. During active growth, however, grain crops are becoming very sensitive to dehydration. They can die with minor moisture losses.

Development phases

During the growing season, there are several stages. The following phases of development are distinguished:

• Seaman germination.
• Formation of shoots.
• Bugistics.
• The formation of the tube.
• Pulling (peeling).
• Bloom.
• Education and pouring grains.
• Maturation.

For germination, a sufficient amount of air, moisture and heat is needed. This process begins after grain swelling. With sufficient heat intake in it, the enzyme system is launched. As a result of its activity, starch, fats and proteins are transformed into water soluble, simpler organic compounds. They are nutrient substances For the embryo. When they arrive, the primary roots begin to grow, and then the stem. When the first unfolded sheet appears above the ground, the phase of shooting formation occurs. They appear on 7-10 days.

Wheat

It acts as one of the main grain crops. On botanical peculiarities allocate soft and lodid wheat. Depending on time, sowing culture is divided into winter and spring. Soft wheat is distinguished by the fruit of flour, secinosity or vitreous consistency. The grain has a rounded or oval shape, slightly expanded to the germin, with a deep furrow and a pronounced beard. Fruit can be yellow, red or white. Soft wheat is used in bakery and confectionery production. Depending on the technological properties, the raw materials are divided into three categories:

Solid wheat has significant differences from soft. Her fruits are elongated, with thickening on the germinal back. Ribbed grain on the cut translucent, vitreous. The fruit beard is developed slightly, incoming shallow oral throat is open. The color of the grain can vary from light to dark amber. It contains more sugar, protein and mineral compounds than in fruits. soft wheat. Solid grades are used in the manufacture of semolina, pasta. They are also added to wheat, distinguished by bad bakery properties. In addition, it is used to obtain flour trap.

Rye

This is a winter-hardy winter plant. Rye grains are longer than wheat. The color of the fetus can be brown, purple, gray-green, yellow. Gray-green grains are larger than others. It contains more protein. Such grains are distinguished by high bakery properties. In rye, less than in wheat, there is an endosperma. This, in turn, causes a large number of shells, which contain an aleron layer. On average, the rye is about 9-13% of proteins. Their peculiarity is that they cannot form gluten. In this regard, rye is used mainly to obtain flour. Her minor amount is on the production of alcohol and malt.

Tritikale

This is a hybrid of rye and wheat. Triticale - cerealWinter hardens. His grains are larger than rye and wheat. From the flour obtained from the triticale, the gluten washed. In this regard, his bakery properties are close to wheat. Depending on the variety, the color of the bread from triticale may be dark, gray or white.

Millet

This crypanic culture Different resistance to drought. Millet - thermo-loving plant. It is grown as a spring culture. Fruit of plants cover floral films. They are easily separated from the nuclei. The millet grain can be oval and elongated or spherical, and endosperm - milder or vitreous.

Barley

This spring culture is characterized by a short period of maturation (vegetation lasts 70 days). Barley can be two or six-row. Culture grows everywhere. Barley produce cereals (bump and pearl). A small amount goes to the production of malt and flour. Barley is considered the main brewing raw material. Zlak is also used as livestock feed.

Fig

This grain culture loves warmth and moisture. The form of the fetus can be oblong (wide and narrow) or rounded. Endosperm is milded, secinosity and vitreous. The latter is considered the most valuable. This is due to the fact that in the process of collapse ( technological processIn the course of which there is a branch of the cereals from the shells), the vitreous rice is less pronounced and gives a greater volume of cereals.

Oats.

This is quite demanding culture. Oats love moisture and warmth. The plant is grown everywhere as a spring culture. The ripening process runs fast enough. Grain has yellow or white color. In addition to proteins and starch, there is a fairly large percentage of fat in OVE - about 4-6. Culture is used in fatal fattening and to obtain croup.