State Duma (Duma) (lower house) represents the people of the Russian Federation as a whole. Consists of 450 deputies who are elected by universal, direct, equal elections by secret ballot for a term of 5 years.

Some laws adopted by the State Duma are subject to mandatory consideration by the Federation Council (they relate to issues of the federal budget, money emission, war and peace, etc.). The adopted Federal Law is sent to the President of the Russian Federation. He signs and promulgates the law within 14 days. However, at the same time, the President of the Russian Federation can impose a veto, i.e. reject the law. In this case, for the approval of the law, at least 2/3 of the votes in each of the chambers are required. If the law is adopted, it is subject to signing by the President of the Russian Federation within 7 days and promulgation.

The Constitution of the Russian Federation does not allow early termination of the powers of the Federation Council. As for the State Duma, it can be dissolved by the President of the Russian Federation before the end of its term of office in certain cases.

3. Leading place in the system government agencies Russia occupies President of the Russian Federation, which is elected by the citizens of the Russian Federation for a term of 4 on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage by secret ballot. The President of the Russian Federation is the head of state., The guarantor of the Constitution of the Russian Federation.

Appointment, with the consent of the State Duma, of the Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation;

Decision-making on the resignation of the Government of the Russian Federation;

Appointment and dismissal of his deputies and federal ministers;

Formation of the Security Council of the Russian Federation and its leadership;

Appointment and dismissal of plenipotentiary representatives of the President of the Russian Federation;

Appointment and dismissal of the high command of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation;

Appointment and recall of Russian diplomatic representatives in foreign states and international organizations.

2. In the field of organization and activity of the legislative branch:

Appointment of elections to the State Duma;

Dissolution of the State Duma;

Submission of bills to the State Duma;

The signing and promulgation of the Federal Law;

Appeal to the Federal Assembly with an annual message on the situation in the country.

3.Solution of some other questions of a specific person:

Resolving issues of citizenship;

Granting political asylum;

Rewarding state awards, assignment of honorary and higher military ranks.

4. In the field of defense:

Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation;

Approval of the military doctrine of the Russian Federation;

Introduction of martial law;

Declaration of a state of emergency.

5. In the field of the judiciary and the prosecutor's office:

Presentation to the Federation Council of candidates for appointment to the position of judges of the Constitutional, Supreme, Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation.

Appointment of judges of other federal courts;

Contribution to Council of the Federation proposals for the appointment and dismissal of the Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation.

4. The federal executive body is an RF government headed by the President and composed of federal ministers.

The Government of the Russian Federation is the body responsible for the current implementation of state policy in all areas.

Government of the Russian Federation:

Develops and submits to the State Duma the federal budget and ensures its implementation;

Ensures the implementation of a unified financial, credit and monetary policy;

Ensures the implementation of a unified state policy in the field of culture, science, education, health care, ecology, social security;

Manages federal property;

Carries out measures to ensure the country's defense, the implementation of the foreign policy of the Russian Federation;

Carries out measures to ensure the rule of law, rights and freedoms of citizens, to protect property, fight crime, etc.

On the issues of its activities, the Government of the Russian Federation issues decrees and orders and ensures their implementation. The Government of the Russian Federation is the supreme body of the federal executive power.

Definition of Parliament

The essential expression of representative democracy is parliament - a nationwide representative body of power that exists on a permanent basis and has the title function of lawmaking. The functioning of parliament is real only under a democratic political regime.

The term "parliament" comes from medieval Latin. In France, the word parlamentum at first it was used to refer to any meeting. Subsequently, in the XV century. the royal court chambers (courts), which ceased to exist with the beginning of the revolution of the 18th century, were called parliaments.

In England in the same XV century. parliament began to be called caste-representative institutions. However, during the period of the estate-representative monarchy, the term "parliament" was not used to designate the corresponding institutions in other countries, therefore it did not become generic. This situation did not change until the end of the 18th century.

In the next century, the term "parliament" as its own legislative body was used only in certain countries. The legislature was called differently - the national congress, the national assembly, the legislature, and the like. In Spain and the Netherlands, such a body was named historically as an estate-representative institution - the Cortes General and the States General, respectively.

Now all such names are also used in constitutions, although the generic and most frequently used proper name of the legislature is parliament.

In Soviet literature, the term "parliament" was associated with the transcription of the verb "speak" (from fr. Parier) and proclaimed the thesis that parliament is a "talking shop". This thesis is an ideologeme and in its meaning does not correspond to the realities of democratic countries.

Parliament's names usually reflect its representative character. The most common such name for parliament or its lower house is the national assembly. The word "assembly" and its correspondence to other languages ​​(assembly, congress, assembly, sabor, etc.) is used in other names, which indicates the collegial nature of the parliament. Collegiality is also evidenced by the presence of the word "council" in the name of the parliament.

In Cyprus, Malta and New Zealand, the parliament is called the House of Representatives, in Australia, Belgium, Ireland, the USA, Japan and in a number of other countries, the lower house of parliament is called that.

The nature of parliament as a representative body can be indicated by its constitutional definitions. For example, in Lithuania the parliament is defined as such, which includes representatives of the people, in Belarus, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Uzbekistan - as a representative body. In Andorra, Spain and the Netherlands, parliament is constituted as a body representing the people or citizens, in Portugal - as a representative assembly of the people and the like.

Some basic laws formulate the definition of parliament as the supreme or supreme representative body (Georgia, Kazakhstan, Moldova, Romania, Serbia, Tajikistan, Hungary, Uzbekistan).

Such a definition can be perceived as a statement of the existence of a system of representative bodies of power, similar to the "system of councils" that existed in soviet period... In the theory and practice of constitutionalism, which is based on the idea of ​​separation of powers, the corresponding system is contested.

The nature of parliament as a representative body is reflected in the title of its members as deputy. The term "deputy" means that a member of parliament is elected (literally - sent, sent) for the purpose of appropriate political representation.

The formation of the state took place over a long period of time. In fact, from the moment humanity reaches the peak of its evolution, it begins to make attempts to organize groups. Gradually, the formations created are expanding. But in this process, one rather serious problem arose - the regulation of the activities of large social groups... Indeed, as they developed, people were able to create such cumbersome structures that it became difficult to manage their functioning. Therefore, the issue of power in the state began to develop gradually.

It should be noted that the most ancient formations of the state type in most cases were ruled by means of power, embodied in the person of a single ruler. Minor attempts to create republics, examples of which are Ancient Greece and Rome were unsuccessful. As a result, the states represented were governed by the power of a single leader.

This social system of government existed until the end of the 18th century. At this time, revolutionary movements began in Europe. The unified government has fully shown its helplessness in some social issues. Therefore, in this period, the idea of ​​creating a universal collective body that will carry out the main

Today this structure exists in almost every state. It is called parliament. The functions and tasks of this body have their own specifics. In addition, parliament is a clear manifestation principle, which will be discussed in more detail later in the article.

The essence of power sharing

The main functions of parliament and its characteristics cannot be considered without analyzing the principle of separation of powers, which was already mentioned earlier.

As for the last category, it is characterized by the doctrine that power in any state should be distributed between appropriate and independent bodies. This will make it possible to coordinate the vital activity of the country's population much more efficiently, and will also make it possible to avoid abuse of power, which is quite often seen in states with a monarchical form of government and a totalitarian regime.

The creation of the principle was preceded by a series of important historical events. In addition, the doctrine was created on the basis of the knowledge and experience of the states of antiquity and the Middle Ages.

The history of the development of the principle of separation of powers

The idea of ​​power sharing that lives on in many today state structures, scientists borrowed from states such as Ancient Greece and Rome. It was in them that the collective mode of government was invented first. For example, Roman power was completely divided between the comitia, consuls and the senate. At the same time, the last element played the role of a modern parliament.

In the era of the Middle Ages dominated, which excluded the presence of collective power. However, during the Age of Enlightenment, scholars such as John Locke and Charles Louis Montesquieu developed the principle of the separation of government. According to their teachings, power in the country should exist in the person of three types of bodies:

• executive;
• legislative;
• judicial.

This principle has gained such popularity that it has found its application in many states. Today, the principle of separation of powers operates practically throughout the world. At the same time, the parliament is the body of the legislative branch. According to many scientists, this is the most important role, because rule-making, in fact, creates acts that directly regulate the activities of the population of the state.

Features of parliament

So, the parliament, the functions of which will be discussed in the article, is the highest representative body. However, its form of recruitment in this case is not the most important characterizing factor. More important is the fact that parliament has the ability to issue laws - regulations of the highest legal force after the constitution of the state.

Today this body in one form or another exists in almost every state. As for the powers of the legislature, they can vary depending on the form of government of a particular country. In the classical form, the parliament (its types, functions are presented in the article) can pass a vote of no confidence in the government, which indicates its control by the central executive body, and also release the head of state, that is, the president, from his powers by way of impeachment.

It should be noted that this body can exist in almost any state, regardless of the form of government in it. In other words, even in monarchical powers, the presence of a parliament does not cause any bewilderment. The parliamentary monarchy is an excellent example of this. In such states, the power of the head of state is limited by the legislative body, which implements the function of the same name.

If we are talking about the republican form of government, then in this case the parliament, the structure, the functions of which may change somewhat, plays a key role. In fact, it is he who is the embodiment of republican democracy, as well as the principles of freedom and equality, because most of the issues are decided collectively by representatives of the people.

As for the political regime in the state, this category quite strongly influences the activities of the legislative and other bodies of the state. However, in some cases, it is through the legislative structure that the negative influence of totalitarianism or authoritarianism can be significantly contained.

The structure of the main legislative body

Parliament, the functions, the powers of which we are considering, is a rather complex and effective structure. In other words, a modern organ of this type is not something like a folk veche. This is a fairly well-ordered mechanism, the main purpose of which is to issue laws, which will be discussed in more detail later in the article. Thus, the parliament has its own internal structure. It should be noted that it can change, depending on the specifics of the political regime and the territorial characteristics of the state.

In its original, classical form, any parliament has a bicameral structure. It should be remembered that it originated in Great Britain, the birthplace of world parliamentarism. The bicameral structure was created to provide a compromise between the bourgeoisie and, of course, the aristocrats - the upper class. In this case, the dual system is fully justified by the need to consider the ideas and views of all estates without exception. After all, the nobility, as the main force of the monarchical system, began to significantly lose its position during the period of the bourgeois revolution in Europe. Therefore, it was necessary to come to terms with the influence of this class.

Under the influence of revolutionary movements, they appeared in some countries. They are excellent for mobile solutions to certain problems, but they are often used as support for a totalitarian leader. Nevertheless, unicameral parliaments exist in modern world... This raises a completely logical question: "What types of structures exist today?" In the 21st century, the following systems of parliament can be found in the world, namely:

1. Bicameral.
2. Unicameral.

The first type is the most popular in the modern world. However, it should be borne in mind that the chambers have their own clearly delineated powers. Moreover, in the overwhelming majority of cases, they are absolutely equal in their legal status.

Features of the bicameral structure

Let's look at a bicameral parliament. Its types and functions are a large number of features. Chief among them is the process of passing laws.

For example, it has a bicameral structure. Her main feature is the fact that any bill must be considered and passed in both chambers. If at least one of them rejects it, then it is not automatically accepted. Thus, a bicameral parliament makes it possible to take into account the peculiarities of almost all social strata. In addition, in many cases, each structural element of the legislative body is assigned other specific functions. For example, the lower house may be responsible for financial questions in the state, and the upper one, in turn, appoints people to certain positions, ratifies impeachment, etc.

It should be noted that all the points presented may differ depending on the specific state. As practice shows, there are no parliaments identical in their functions and powers.

Bicameral structures for the most part today exist in federal states. Given this form of territorial structure, a parliament consisting of two elements is simply necessary. Indeed, in a federation, the second chamber, as a rule, represents the interests of the subjects first of all. These states include Australia, the Russian Federation, India, Mexico, the United States of America, Great Britain, etc.

However, bicameral parliaments can also be found in unitary countries. As a rule, even in such cases, the legislature is organized according to the principle of territoriality, which makes it possible to take into account the interests individual elements powers.

Internal organs of the legislative center

It should be noted that the parliament, the functions of which will be presented below, use internal organs special purpose. In most cases, the organization of the structure of these parliamentary departments has common features in many states. It is worth highlighting the main tasks of parliamentary bodies:

1. Coordination of the work of the legislative center.
2. Organization of all necessary conditions for the implementation by parliament of its direct functions.

These tasks are key in the activities of the legislature. Their implementation, as mentioned earlier, is the responsibility of the internal departments. The key parliamentary body is the speaker or chairman. As a rule, the activity of this element is embodied in a separate person, that is, a specific person. At the same time, the role of the speaker is quite important for the entire activity of the parliament of this or that state. It performs a number of special functions, which include the following:

• representing the legislature in the international arena;
• ensuring consideration of certain important issues;
• setting the agenda;
• ensuring consideration of draft laws;
• determination of specific types of procedures for discussing draft laws or other issues;
• leading parliamentary deliberations;
• giving the floor to the deputies;
• determination of the type of voting and its results, etc.

A rather important function of the parliamentary chairman is the management of the funds of this body, as well as the parliamentary police units. To facilitate the speaker's work, he, as a rule, is provided with deputies - vice-chairmen.

This form of organization of the governing parliamentary body is most often found in bicameral parliaments. In addition, the role of the speaker is not so important in all states. For example, in the Swiss Parliament, the chairman and his deputies are elected only for the duration of the respective sessions. In this case, the speaker is not an important political figure at all.

Another important element the internal organization of the legislative body are parliamentary commissions. They are specialized bodies made up of deputies. Their main purpose is to assess and directly create legislative acts, to monitor the activities of the executive authorities, as well as to solve specific problems.

At the same time, there are two main types of commissions, namely: temporary and permanent. The latter are created for the duration of the activity of the respective parliamentary chamber. In the overwhelming majority of cases, permanent commissions are created on defense, finance, legislation and lawmaking, international cooperation, etc.

As for the temporary bodies, they, as a rule, deal with specific tasks. Such commissions are investigative, special, auditing, etc. It should be noted that parliamentary bodies have a wide range of powers. Most often, they manifest themselves in the process of lawmaking, because it is in the composition of the commissions that draft laws are developed, as well as their scientific regulations.

Factions of parliament

The internal activities of many legislative bodies are supported by its factions. They are, in fact, deputy associations. The number of each faction separately, as a rule, affects the political program of the state.

After all, the deputies of one or another party in the legislative body are trying to pass the bills they are interested in. As for the formation of factions, this process, as a rule, takes place on the basis of regulations in each individual state.

Parliament: functions, powers

As the main legislative center of any state, the body represented in the article is endowed with certain powers, and also has a number of specific functions. These categories, in fact, show its real capabilities in a particular state.

But if the main functions of the parliament, as a rule, are practically the same everywhere, then the powers can be both full and limited. As a rule, the specific possibilities of the parliament are determined by the main state law, that is, the constitution. Based on this, all, without exception, the powers of the main legislative body can be divided between three groups:

1. Not all parliaments are endowed with unlimited powers. In this case, the legislature can deal with the solution of even those issues that are not enshrined in the constitution.
2. The opposite of the first type of bodies are parliaments with limited powers. As a rule, their capabilities are clearly listed in the constitution of the state. These include the parliaments of France, Senegal, etc.
3. The most specific type of parliamentary power is the advisory powers of the legislature. Such structures, most often, arise in countries of Muslim law. The bottom line is that in them the head of state is the monarch, and the parliament exists to help in the process of his rule. In other words, this body only advises the head of the country on some issues and does not fulfill its primary function.

In addition to the classification presented earlier, the functions of parliament can also be divided according to the areas of activity of this body. For example, the legislative bodies of many countries are endowed with a number of universal opportunities for regulating the financial, tax system, defense, international relations, etc.

In addition to the powers mentioned, it is also necessary to consider the main directions of the legislative body's activities. What are the functions of parliament? In the scientific community, there are many approaches to addressing this problem. But in most cases, the main powers of this body are highlighted, consisting of four elements. These include the following:

1. The most important function of parliament is undoubtedly the function of lawmaking. After all, this body was originally created precisely to create normative acts of higher legal force. The function allows you to take into account the opinion of the majority, and also excludes the possibility of issuing anti-social laws that would oppress the rights of a particular group of people. At the same time, the legislative function of the parliament consists of a number of specific stages, namely: the creation of a draft law, discussion, amendments and adoption, coordination of interests and signing. Thus, the process of creating normative acts of the highest legal force is of a professional nature. In addition, the legislative function of parliament actually approves the legal system of the state. Since it is the laws that govern the most important social relations.
2. The representative function of the parliament is that the deputies elected to this body must protect the interests of that part of the population that cast their votes for them.
3. Function feedback based on the fact that deputies hold briefings, round tables and parties to discuss pressing government problems that need to be addressed.
4. One of the most important parliamentary functions is budgeting. In fact, it is the legislature that is responsible for creating an adequate standard of living for the population of the country.

Functions of the RF Parliament

The Federal Assembly is the Legislature Russian Federation... In accordance with the current Constitution of the state, the parliament of the Russian Federation performs the following functions:

1. Creation of legislative acts.
2. Appointment and dismissal of the Chairman of the Accounting Chamber and the Central Bank.
3. Conducting an impeachment.
4. Amnesty announcement.
5. Control over executive authorities.
6. Representation of the people.

Thus, the functions of the Russian parliament as a whole have a common character with classic trend functioning of legislative bodies in the world. This is a rather positive factor. After all, it testifies, first of all, to the fact that the functions of the Russian parliament embody the best European trends. But these are far from all the positive aspects of the presented structure. After all, the parliament itself, its features and functions allow us to talk about real democracy in the state. If the country does not have a representative body, or if it does not act properly, then there is no need to talk about democracy.

Conclusion

So, in the article we found out what parliament is and its functions. We briefly examined the key powers of the legislative bodies, their structure, as well as the history of the formation of parliamentarism and the principle of the separation of powers in the world.

It should be noted that the functioning of the body presented in the article is of key importance for many powers, therefore, the development of theoretical concepts on the activities of parliament is necessary for the development of all states without exception.

English parliament from fr. parler - to speak) is the generic name of the highest representative and legislative body in democratic states. Actually "P." this body is named in Great Britain, France, Italy, Canada, Belgium, etc .; in the USA and most countries Latin America it is called a congress, in the Russian Federation - the Federal Assembly, in Lithuania and Latvia - the Sejm, and so on. Distinguish between the unicameral and bicameral structure of P. (see. Bicameral system. Unicameral system).

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PARLIAMENT

or the legislature is the highest national (nationwide) representative body of state power, authorized to perform legislative, control and some other functions in the constitutionally specified parameters. P. in different countries are called differently: in Great Britain and Japan - the parliament, in Russia and Switzerland - the Federal Assembly, in the USA - the Congress, in France - the National Assembly and the Senate, etc. They can be generally subdivided into P • with unlimited powers, with limited powers and advisory. P. of the first two categories, i.e. Legislatures with unlimited and limited powers occupy a central place in the political and legal mechanisms of their countries, largely predetermining the very content and features of the chosen form of government (actually parliamentary, presidential, mixed). The establishment of consultative legislatures, or quasi-parliaments, characterizes political regimes such as absolute monarchies in Muslim countries with fundamentalist traditions (for example, Kuwait, UAE). As for the highest representative bodies of state power in the countries of totalitarian socialism, they are generally not P., since the entire procedure for their organization and activity is built on principles that are opposite to the principles of parliamentarism. Usually P. are unicameral and bicameral. P. with a large number of chambers, as was the case in Yugoslavia or South Africa, is a rare exception. In a bicameral P., the so-called lower and upper chambers are created (for example, in Great Britain - the House of Commons and Lords, in Russia - the State Duma and the Federation Council, in Switzerland - the National Council and the Council of Cantons (Council of States according to the 1999 Constitution), in the USA - the House representatives and the Senate, in France - the National Assembly and the Senate, in Japan - the House of Representatives and Councilors, etc.). In any case, the constitution of the upper chambers is more associated in the modern era with the tasks of strengthening the responsibility and professionalism of P. in general, rather than with the goals of establishing an instrument of restraint, braking the lower chambers in their "ultra-democratic" aspirations, as was the case at the dawn of parliamentarism. The upper chambers are able to represent and defend regional and local interests more broadly and rationally: in federal states - their subjects of the federation, in unitary states - territorial collectives. Chambers differ significantly in their methods of formation - from elective (lower and many upper) to occupying a place in the chamber by office, by appointment (many upper). The House of Lords in Great Britain, to a certain extent, was formed until 1999 by inheritance law. In terms of numerical composition, on average, the lower chambers consist of 400-600 deputies, the upper ones - from 100 to 300 members. The lower chambers are usually elected for 4-5 years, the upper ones are formed for 6-9 years with periodic rotation of a certain part of the total composition. The competence of each chamber is enshrined in the Constitution, has its own exclusive range of rights and obligations that reveal its social and legal purpose. However, in principle, only jointly, in the creative unity of both chambers, can P. can fully realize its functions as the highest representative body of state power. The main purpose of P. is primarily a legislative function, i.e. development and adoption of laws, incl. financial and budgetary purposes, which constitute the fundamental basis of the entire legal system of the country. The control function is to control P. over the activities of the government and other higher bodies of state power and is expressed in such forms as hearing reports, checking the quality and effectiveness of the norms of delegated legislation, ratifying international treaties, etc. (see also Parliamentary Control). In addition, P.'s functional prerogatives include a number of administrative and managerial powers (for example, the appointment and dismissal of some higher officials), judicial, more precisely quasi-judicial (impeachment, amnesty), as well as the founding plan (creation of state institutions or participation in their formation). By definition, a government should be a sovereign authoritative body, the formation and operation of which is entirely subordinate to the tasks of implementing national tasks. This is the essence of its representative function. See also Federal Assembly, State Duma, Federation Council. THEM. Stepanov

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from fr. parler - to speak) - the highest representative and legislative body of the state, performing the functions of representing the main socio-political forces of the country, legislative activity.

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Parliament

legislative body of bourgeois states, usually elected. The names of this legislature in different countries different: in England - the Parliament, in the USA - the Congress, in Finland - the Sejm, in Sweden - the Rikstag, in Norway - the Storting, in Iran, Turkey - the Majlis, etc. In most countries it consists of two chambers - upper and lower, which are formally equal, but in fact the upper chambers are often more competent (the Senate in the USA, the House of Lords in England, etc.). The elections of members of parliament are carried out according to bourgeois electoral laws, which are drawn up in such a way as to impede access to the legislative bodies of these countries for genuine representatives of the working people. However, despite all the slingshots and obstacles, in many parliaments among the deputies there are communists and other progressive representatives of the working people. The parliamentary struggle for the communists is one of the important methods of the class struggle; from the rostrum of parliaments, communist deputies expose the intrigues of imperialism and reaction against peace, the interests of the working people, and defend the national independence of their countries. Communist and workers' parties believe that in the modern era the working class of a number of bourgeois states will be able, under certain conditions, to win the majority of parliamentary seats in parliamentary elections and turn it into an instrument of the real will of the working people. The main condition for the parliamentary, peaceful path of transition from capitalism to socialism is the unity of action of all working people under the leadership of the working class and its Marxist-Leninist party. Bourgeois parliamentarism as a state system implementing the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie is fundamentally different from the true democracy that exists in the USSR and other socialist countries.

In the Russian Federation, parliament consists of two chambers: the Federation Council and the State Duma. The Federation Council includes about two representatives from each constituent entity of the Federation - the head of the representative and executive power.

The State Duma is elected by direct general elections; for a period of 4 years and consists of 450 deputies. A citizen of Russia who has reached the age of 21 and has the right to participate in elections can be elected a deputy of the State Duma.

State Duma deputies work on a professional permanent basis. They are prohibited from being in any other public service, combining positions in other representative bodies and bodies local government... Deputies of the State Duma are allowed to engage only in teaching, scientific and other creative activities.

The Federal Assembly (parliament) is a permanent body. Sessions of both chambers of parliament are open, except in certain cases stipulated by the rules of procedure of the chamber.

The constitution provides for the right to create committees and commissions by both chambers of the Federal Assembly. The committees have a sectoral and functional focus. These are permanent bodies of the chambers engaged in the development of bills, organizational and other issues. Subcommittees can be created in committees. The commissions are temporary in nature, created to solve certain problems.

The powers of both chambers of parliament are determined by the Russian Constitution. The jurisdiction of the Federation Council includes: approval and change of borders between the constituent entities of the Russian Federation; approval of the Presidential Decree on the introduction of martial law or a state of emergency; the appointment of a number of high-ranking leaders and others.

The State Duma adopts federal laws; decides on the issue of confidence in the government, announcement of amnesty, appointment to office and others.

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