Artificial lighting can be common(all production premises are illuminated by the same type of lamps, evenly spaced above the illuminated surface and equipped with lamps of the same power) and combined(local lighting is added to the general lighting for work places with lamps located at the apparatus, machine tool, devices, etc.). The use of only local lighting is unacceptable, as the sharp contrast between brightly lit and unlit areas fatigues the eyes, slows down the process of work and can cause accidents.

By functional purpose, artificial lighting is divided into working, duty, emergency.

Work lighting mandatory in all rooms and illuminated areas to ensure the normal work of people and traffic.

Emergency lighting switched on outside working hours.

Emergency lighting is provided to ensure minimum illumination in the production area in case of a sudden shutdown of the working lighting.

In modern multi-span one-story buildings without skylights with one side glazing, natural and artificial lighting (combined lighting) are used simultaneously during the daytime. It is important that both types of lighting are in harmony with one another. Lighting devices make up the largest group of electrical appliances in every home. Light sources are an important element of everyday life.

Sources of artificial lighting. Their advantages and disadvantages

All modern lamps can be classified according to three main characteristics: this is the type of base, the method of receiving light and the voltage from which they operate. Let's start with the most important thing - the method of obtaining the luminous flux. It is from him that the ability of the lamp to consume a certain amount of electrical energy fully depends. Let's take a closer look at some of the features of these lighting lamps.

Incandescent lamps

Incandescent lamps (fig. 1) belong to the class of thermal light sources. Despite the introduction of more technologically advanced types of lamps, they remain one of the most popular and cheapest light sources, especially in the household sector.

The action of these lamps is based on heating the coil by the current passing through it to a temperature of 3000 degrees. Bulbs of lamps with a power of 40 W or more are filled with inert gases - argon or krypton. Household lamps are available with a power of 25 - 150 watts. Lamps up to 60 watts with a reduced base are called minions. You can check the health of the lamp with a tester, the spiral must have a certain resistance. In a luminaire with an incandescent lamp, only two malfunctions are possible: 1. Burned out lamp 2. There is no contact in the wiring, as a result of which voltage is not supplied to the base.

Advantages: Simple in design, reliable, have no additional devices when turned on, practically independent of the ambient temperature, instantly ignited.

disadvantages: They do not have a very long service life, about 1000 hours.

Fluorescent lamps

Fluorescent lamps (fig. 2) refer to low pressure gas discharge lamps. They can be of various shapes: straight, tubular, curly and compact (CFL). The tube diameter is not related to the lamp wattage, which can reach up to 200 watts. Tubular lamps have two-pin base types, depending on the distance between the pins: G-13 (distance - 13 mm) for lamps with a diameter of 40 mm and 26 mm and G-5 (distance - 5 mm) for lamps with a diameter of 16 mm.

Compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) (Fig. 3)- a fluorescent lamp, which has a curved bulb, which allows it to be placed in a small lamp. Such lamps can have a built-in electronic choke (ECG), they can be of different shapes and different lengths. They are used either in special types of luminaires or to replace incandescent lamps in conventional types of luminaires (lamps with a power of up to 20W, which are screwed into a threaded holder or through an adapter).

Fluorescent lamps require the operation of a special device - a ballast (choke). Most foreign lamps can work with both conventional (choke) and electronic ballasts (ECG). But some of them are intended for only one type of ballast.

Luminaires with electronic ballasts have the following advantages: the lamp does not flicker, lights up better, does not make noise (noise from the choke), is lighter in weight, saves energy (power losses in electronic ballasts are much lower than in ballasts).

By changing the types of phosphor, you can change the color characteristics of the lamps. The letters included in the name of fluorescent lamps mean:

L - luminescent, B - white, TB - warm white, D - daylight, C - with improved color rendering. The numbers 18, 20, 36, 40, 65, 80 indicate the rated power in watts. For example, LDTs-18 is a fluorescent lamp, daylight, with improved color rendering, with a power of 18 W.

A luminaire with fluorescent lamps works as follows (Fig. 4) - a tubular lamp is filled with argon and mercury vapor. The starter is necessary to start the lamp, you need to warm up the electrodes for a short time, the current flowing through the choke and the starter increases significantly, heats the bimetallic plate of the starter, the lamp electrodes warm up, the starter contact opens, the current in the circuit decreases, a short-term high voltage is formed on the choke, its accumulated enough energy to break through the gas in the lamp bulb. Further, the current goes through the choke and the lamp, while 110 volts falls on the choke, and 110 volts on the lamp. Mercury vapor using a phosphor creates a glow that is perceived by the human eye. The choke almost does not consume energy, the energy that it takes during magnetization, it returns almost completely when demagnetized, while the wires are uselessly loaded to unload the network, capacitor C is used. Energy exchange does not occur between the network and the choke, but between the choke and the capacitor. The presence of a capacitor reduces the efficiency of the lamp, without it the efficiency is 50-60%, with it - 95%. A capacitor, which is connected in parallel with the starter, is used for RFI protection.

A malfunction of a fluorescent lamp may consist in a violation of the electrical contact in the lamp circuit or in the failure of one of the lamp elements. The reliability of the contacts is checked by visual inspection and by a tester.

The operability of the lamp or control gear is checked by sequentially replacing all elements with known good ones.

Typical malfunctions of luminaires with fluorescent lamps

Malfunction		Remedy
Protection is triggered when the lamp is turned on	1. Breakdown of the compensating capacitor (from radio interference) at the input of the luminaire. 2. Short circuit in the circuit behind the machine.	1. Replace the capacitor. 2. Check the voltage at the contacts of the cartridges and the starter. 3. Replace the lamp with a good one. 4. Check the integrity of the lamp spirals.
The lamp does not light up.	There is no voltage on the luminaire holder on the side of the supply mains, the mains voltage is low.	Check the presence and value of the supply voltage with an indicator or tester.
The lamp does not ignite, there is no glow at the ends of the lamp.	1. Poor contact between lamp pins and socket contacts or between starter pins and starter holder contacts. 2. Malfunction of the lamp, breakage or burnout of the spirals. 3. Malfunctioning starter - the starter does not close the filament of the lamp electrodes. 4. Malfunction in the electrical circuit of the luminaire. 5. Defective throttle.	1. Move the lamp and starter to the sides. 2. Install a known-good lamp. 3. If there is no light in the starter, replace the starter. 4. Check all connections in the wiring diagram. 5. If no wire breakage, failure of contact connections and errors in the electrical circuit are found, then the choke is faulty.
The lamp does not ignite, the ends of the lamp glow.	Starter defective.	Replace starter.
The lamp blinks but does not come on, there is a glow at one end.	1. Errors in the electrical circuit. 2. A short in an electrical circuit or socket that could short-circuit the lamp. 3. Shorting of the terminals of the lamp electrodes.	1. Remove and insert lamps, swap ends. If a previously non-luminous electrode glows, then the lamp is working. 2. If there is no glow at the same end of the lamp, check if there is a short circuit in the socket on the side of the non-luminous electrode. 3. If no short is found, check the wiring diagram. 4. Replace the lamp
The lamp does not blink or light up, there is a glow at both ends of the electrodes.	1. Error in the electrical circuit. 2. Malfunction of the starter (breakdown of the capacitor to suppress radio interference or sticking of the starter contacts).	Replace starter.
The lamp blinks and does not come on	1. Defective starter. 2. Errors in the electrical circuit. 3. Low mains voltage.	1. Check the mains voltage with a tester. 2. Replace the starter. 3. Replace the lamp.
When the lamp is turned on, an orange glow is observed at its ends, after a while the glow disappears and the lamp does not light up.	The lamp is defective, air has entered the lamp	Lamp needs to be replaced
The lamp turns on and off alternately	Lamp failure	1. The lamp needs to be replaced. 2. If flashing continues, replace the starter.
When the lamp is turned on, the spirals of its electrodes burn out.	1. Malfunction of the choke (insulation or interturn short circuit in the winding is broken). 2. The electrical circuit has a short to the case.	1. Check the wiring diagram. 2. Check the insulation of the wires. 3. Check in the electrical circuit for a short circuit to the luminaire body
The lamp ignites, but after a few hours of operation, blackening of its ends appears.	1. Short circuit to the luminaire body in the electrical circuit. 2. Faulty throttle.	1. Check the short circuit to the case, check the insulation of the wiring. 2. Use a tester to check the starting and operating currents, if these values ​​exceed normal values, replace the choke.
The lamp lights up, when it burns, the rotation of the discharge cord begins and moving spiral and serpentine stripes appear	1. The lamp is defective. 2. Strong fluctuations in mains voltage. 3. Bad contact in connections. 4. The lamp covers the magnetic leakage lines of the inductor.	1. The lamp needs to be replaced. 2. Check the mains voltage. 3. Check the contact connections. 4. Replace the throttle.

Advantages: Compared with incandescent lamps, it is more economical and more durable, have good light transmission. The service life is up to 10,000 hours for imported lamps and up to 5000-8000 hours for domestic ones. Convenient to use where the lamp has been on for many hours.

disadvantages: At temperatures below 5 degrees, it is difficult to ignite and may burn more dimly.

DRL gas-discharge lamps

DRL lamps(arc mercury with a phosphor (Fig.5.6), these are high-pressure discharge lamps. Thanks to additional electrodes and resistors located in the bulb, the lamp does not need an ignition device, is connected to the network with an inductive ballast and ignites directly from a voltage of 220 volts, a capacitor is needed to reduce the amperage.

After turning on the lamp, it lights up, the luminous flux created by the lamp gradually increases, the combustion process lasts 7 to 10 minutes. When the voltage disappears, the lamp goes out. It is impossible to ignite a hot lamp, it must completely cool down, after turning it off, it can be re-ignited only after 10-15 minutes. They are available with a capacity of 80 to 250 watts.

Repair of lamps with DRL lamps consists in identifying a failed element and replacing it with a known good one.

Advantages: much more economical than incandescent lamps, insensitive to temperature changes, so it is convenient to use them for outdoor lighting, service life up to 15,000 hours.

disadvantages: low color rendering, luminous flux ripple, sensitivity to voltage fluctuations in the network.

Halogen lamps

Incandescent halogen lamps(Fig. 7) belong to the class of thermal light sources, the light emission of which is a consequence of the heating of the lamp spiral by the current passing through it. Filled with a gas mixture containing halogens (usually iodine or bromine). This gives the light brightness, saturation, and can be used in point light sources.

It is better to use lamps of well-known companies - halogen lamps emit ultraviolet rays, which is harmful to the eyes. The lamps of well-known companies have a special coating that does not transmit ultraviolet rays.

In the event of a malfunction, measure the voltage at the lamp base, if the voltage is normal, replace the lamp. If there is no voltage at the base of the luminaire, there is a malfunction in the transformer or in the contact part of the electrical fittings.

Advantages: Service life 1500-2000 hours, have a stable luminous flux during the entire service life, smaller bulb sizes compared to incandescent lamps. With the same power as the incandescent lamp, the light output is 1.5-2 times higher.

disadvantages: Changes in the mains voltage are undesirable, with a decrease in voltage, the temperature of the coil decreases and the lamp life decreases.

Energy-saving lamps

Energy saving lamps (fig. 8) are intended for use in lighting fixtures of residential, office, commercial, administrative and industrial premises, in decorative lighting installations.

They can be used in any luminaire as a substitute for incandescent bulbs. Energy saving lamps are a type of low pressure discharge lamps, namely compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs).

The power of energy-saving lamps is about five times less than that of incandescent lamps. Therefore, it is recommended to select the power of energy-saving lamps based on a ratio of 1: 5 to incandescent lamps.

The main parameters of such lamps are color temperature, cap size and color rendering index. The color temperature determines the light color of the energy saving lamp. Expressed in Kelvin. The lower the temperature, the closer to red the glow color.

Energy saving lamps have different colors of light - warm white light, cool white, daylight. It is recommended to choose the desired color based on the interior of the apartment or house and the peculiarities of the eyesight of the people who are there. Cold white light is designated 6400K. This kind of lighting is bright white and is better suited for office environments. Natural white light is designated 4200K and is close to natural light. This color can be suitable for a child's room and living room. Warm white light is slightly yellowish and has the designation 2700K. It is closest to an incandescent lamp, better suited for relaxation, can be used in the kitchen and in the bedroom. Most people choose a warm color for an apartment.

If flickering appears in the energy-saving lamp, then this indicates a malfunction of the device, the lamp is either weakly screwed in, or is faulty and must be replaced.

Advantages: They last 8 times longer than conventional incandescent lamps, consume 80% less electricity, give 5 times more light with equal energy consumption, can work continuously in places where lighting is required throughout the day, are less sensitive to shaking and vibrations, they are weakly heated, do not buzz or flicker.

disadvantages: Warm up slowly (about two minutes), cannot be used in open street lights (do not work at temperatures below 15 degrees C), cannot be used with dimmers (dimmers) and motion sensors.

LED lamp.

LED lamp(Fig. 9) are another new generation light source.

LEDs are used as a light source in such lamps. An LED emits light when an electric current passes through it.

LED main lighting lamps consist of: a diffuser, an LED or a set of LEDs, a housing, a cooling radiator, a power supply, a base. The heatsink is of great importance, as the LEDs and the power supply get hot. If the radiator is small or poorly made, then such lamps fail faster (usually the power supply fails). The power supply converts the 220V AC voltage to DC to power the LEDs.

Produced for cartridges GU5.3, GU10, E14, E27. Lamps are available in soft warm light (2600-3500K), neutral white (3700-4200K) and cool white (5500-6500K). There are dimmable LED bulbs (using a dimmer for incandescent bulbs), but they are more expensive.

Advantages: Economical (energy costs are 10 times less than incandescent lamps), long service life (20,000 hours and more), safe components are used in production (do not contain mercury), are resistant to voltage surges, do not require heating (unlike energy saving lamps).

disadvantages: Quite high price, LEDs gradually lose brightness, cannot work at temperatures above 100 degrees C (ovens, etc.).

Natural light comes from natural light sources. Its characteristics, first of all, depend on the time of day, but they are also determined by the geographic location of the area, the time of year and the state of the atmosphere.

Natural lighting is physiologically necessary and most favorable for a person. However, it cannot fully ensure its normal life. Because of this, even in ancient times, people began to look for an addition to it - artificial lighting.

Today, the sources of artificial lighting are usually incandescent lamps, fluorescent lamps or light sources using LEDs.

Types of artificial lighting

Artificial lighting is divided into several types. Exists four types of artificial lighting... Usually three of them are installed in residential premises, the fourth is less common.

1. General

Under general illumination, the light is evenly distributed over the entire area. This is achieved by maintaining the same distance between the luminaires, which are evenly scattered.

With a light source located at one point, there will be a difference in the brightness of the light, but there will be no sharp changes. An example is the chandelier located in the middle of the ceiling.

2. Local

To highlight the necessary objects or areas, local lighting is used. In this case, the light source is located in a certain area: a stove, a work table or part of a wall.

According to the designers, local lighting plays an important role in interior decoration. It gives it completeness and logical completeness. For example, in an office or bedroom, you can generally use only one local lighting, completely abandoning the general one.

The ones listed above have their drawbacks. So, general lighting excludes the possibility of changing the direction of the main luminous flux, and also has excessive diffusion of light.

Conversely, local lighting allows you to highlight only a specific area of ​​the room, which is brightly illuminated by a localized light source.

3. Combined

All these disadvantages can be eliminated by combining local and general lighting together. Thus, the problem of illumination of a modern dwelling will be solved. That is why, combined lighting, which combines the two previous types, is the most commonly used option.

4. Emergency

The ones described above are used in residential premises. The fourth type of lighting is emergency. Unfortunately, it is not always possible to find it in living quarters.

The light sources of this type of lighting are powered by batteries. Low wattage auxiliary lamps are automatically turned on when the main source is disconnected.

Emergency lighting is essential in rooms where blackouts can cause serious injury.

The simplest example is houses with stairs, in which, in the absence of lighting, it is easy to fall. And emergency lamps located on the sides of the steps will protect residents from such troubles.

Artificial lighting is provided in rooms in which there is not enough natural light or to illuminate the room during those hours of the day when there is no natural light.

By design, artificial lighting can be of two types: general and combined, when local lighting is added to the general lighting, concentrating the luminous flux directly at the workplace. General lighting is divided into general uniform illumination (with a uniform distribution of the luminous flux without taking into account the location of the equipment) and general localized lighting (with the distribution of the luminous flux taking into account the location of workplaces).

Combined lighting has several advantages over general lighting:

The total consumption of electrical energy is reduced by reducing the installed power of light sources due to the proximity of local lamps to the working surface;

Electricity is saved by turning off local lighting fixtures in vacant workplaces;

Increases the visibility of embossed details through individual selection of local lighting fixtures;

Shadows and glare in the workplace are limited;

It is possible to create high levels of illumination on inclined surfaces.

The use of local lighting alone inside buildings is not allowed. In industrial plants, it is recommended to use a combined lighting system where precise visual work is performed, where equipment creates deep, harsh shadows or work surfaces are located vertically. The general lighting system can be recommended in rooms where the same type of work is performed over the entire area, as well as in administrative offices, warehouses and checkpoints. If the workplaces are concentrated in separate areas, for example, at marking plates, OTK tables, it is advisable to resort to localized placement of general lighting fixtures.

Artificial lighting eliminates the aforementioned drawbacks of natural lighting and provides an optimal light regime.

Artificial lighting is subdivided into working, emergency, security and duty.

Work lighting is mandatory for all rooms, buildings, and areas of open spaces. It serves to ensure normal working conditions, the passage of people, the passage of vehicles.

Emergency lighting divided, in turn, into security lighting and evacuation.

Security lighting provide in cases where the shutdown of the working lighting and the related disruption of the maintenance of equipment and mechanisms can cause:

Explosion, fire, poisoning of people;

Long-term disruption of the technological process;

Disruption of the operation of such facilities as power plants, radio and television transmission and communication centers, control rooms, pumping installations for water supply, sewerage and heating systems, ventilation and air conditioning installations for industrial premises in which the termination of work is unacceptable, etc.;

Violation of the regime of children's institutions, regardless of the number of children in them.

Evacuation lighting in rooms or places where work is carried out outside buildings, it is necessary to provide:

In places dangerous for the passage of people;

In the passages and on the stairs, which serve for the evacuation of people (if there are more than 50 people evacuated);

Along the main aisles of production facilities, which employ more than 50 people;

In the stairwells of residential buildings with a height of six floors or more;

In industrial premises without natural light, etc.

The emergency lighting sources can be switched on simultaneously with the main lighting fixtures and be permanently lit or switched on automatically only when the power supply to the normal lighting is cut off.

Security lighting(in the absence of special technical means of protection) is provided along the borders of territories protected at night.

Emergency lighting- lighting of premises during non-working hours. If necessary, part of the luminaires for working or emergency lighting can be used for emergency lighting

For artificial illumination of working areas with electric light, direct, reflected and diffused light is used (Figure 4.4).

Rice. 4.4. Types of lamps, depending on the proportion of the luminous flux falling on the lower hemisphere:

NS - direct light; R - diffused light; O - reflected light

The choice of certain luminaires for light distribution depends on the nature of the work performed in the room, the possibility of dust, air pollution, and the reflectivity of surfaces in the room. For example, luminaires of diffused and reflected light are used in such rooms where greater uniformity of illumination is required, when it is necessary to soften the harshness of shadows or glare on surfaces with high reflections, etc.

Standardization of artificial lighting parameters.

According to SNiP 23-09-95, the standardized parameters of artificial lighting are:

Illumination of the working surface E, OK;

Blindness indicator R,%;

Illumination ripple factor K n,%.

Illumination of the working surface - the density of the luminous flux on the surface illuminated by it:

, (4.4)

where f - luminous flux density, lm; S- the area of ​​the surface illuminated by the luminous flux, m 2.

As the standard illumination value, its minimum value is set, at which the performance of a certain work does not harm the eyesight of the employee. E min is set for the darkest part of the working surface. It is established according to the characteristics of visual work, which is determined by visual tension when performing this work.

In total, eight categories of visual work are distinguished. The first six categories (from works of very high accuracy to rough visual work) are classified depending on the smallest size of the object of discrimination (thickness of the mark on the scale of the device, the thinnest line of the drawing, a crack in the product, etc.), the contrast of the object of discrimination with the background ( small, medium, large) and background characteristics (light, medium and dark). VII category establishes requirements for work with luminous materials and products in hot shops, VIII - for general monitoring of the progress of work.

Blindness indicator- the criterion for evaluating the glare of the lighting installation, determined by the expression

P = (S- 1) × 100%, (4.5)

where S- coefficient of glare, equal to the ratio of threshold brightness differences in the presence and absence of glare sources in the field of view. In industrial premises, the glare rate should not exceed 20-40%, depending on the category of visual work.

When industrial premises are illuminated with gas-discharge lamps powered by alternating current of industrial frequency (50 Hz), the depth of illumination ripple is limited.

Illumination ripple factor is a criterion for assessing the relative depth of illumination fluctuations as a result of the change in time of the luminous flux of gas-discharge lamps when powered by alternating current, expressed by the formula

where E max, E min- respectively, the maximum and minimum values ​​of illumination for the period of its fluctuation, lux; E c p is the average illumination value for the same period, lx.

The value of the ripple coefficient, depending on the lighting system and the nature of the work performed, should not exceed 10-20% (when working related to monitoring computer video terminals, K n- no more than 5%).

Currently, the following light sources are used for artificial lighting:

Incandescent lamps, including halogen lamps;

Arc sodium gas discharge lamps;

Arc mercury halogen lamps.

Distinguish colors if necessary;

When working with prolonged eye strain;

In production facilities with a continuous production cycle or work in three shifts;

In children's and school institutions;

In rooms where lighting is used as an architectural design for interiors.

The disadvantage of the most common fluorescent lamps is the pulsation of their luminous flux, the oscillation depth of which can reach 55%. The pulsation of the light flux, a multiple of the frequency of the alternating current, can in certain cases cause a "stroboscopic effect" that disrupts the correct visual perception of moving objects, when a rotating object may seem stationary. The pulsation of the light flux leads to rapid eye fatigue. In modern multi-lamp luminaires, using special electrical circuits for connecting lamps, this disadvantage can be eliminated.

To calculate the lighting installation with the uniform placement of general lighting fixtures and a horizontal working surface, the so-called method of the utilization rate of the luminous flux or the method of the utilization rate of the lighting installation is the main one. This method takes into account both the luminous flux of light sources and the luminous flux reflected from the walls, ceiling and other surfaces of the room.

The calculation is carried out according to the formula:

where F l- luminous flux of one lamp, lm; E n- normalized illumination, lux; S- area of ​​the room, m 2; Z= 1.15 - coefficient taking into account the ratio of the average illumination to the minimum, when illuminated by lines of fluorescent lamps Z = 1,1; K 3- the safety factor, taken depending on the air pollution in the room; N-number of lamps; h- the utilization factor of the luminous flux.

The utilization factor of the luminous flux is determined according to the lighting tables. It depends on the efficiency and the luminous intensity distribution curve of the luminaire, the reflection coefficients of the ceiling, floor and walls, the height of the luminaire suspension above the calculated surface and the configuration of the room, which is determined by the index (indicator) of the room:

where a, b- width and length of the room, m; h p- suspension height of the luminaire above the calculated surface, m.

The minimum required illumination is set according to SNiP 23-05-95 or industry standards. The number of luminaires is selected taking into account their optimal location. According to the required luminous flux, the nearest standard lamp is selected, its power is determined, and then the power of the entire lighting installation.

To calculate localized and local illumination of horizontal and inclined surfaces and illumination in cases where reflected light can be neglected, the point method is used, where the formula is used

where E- illumination, lx; I- luminous intensity in the direction from the source to a given point of the working surface, cd; a- the angle between the normal to the working surface and the direction of the light flux to the source; K 3- safety factor; h p- suspension height of the luminaire above the working surface, m.

The main concepts that characterize light are luminous flux, luminous intensity, illumination and brightness.

The luminous flux is called the flux of radiant energy, assessed by the eye by the light sensation.

Good lighting has a tonic effect, creates a good mood, improves the course of the basic processes of higher nervous activity.

Improving illumination contributes to improved performance even in cases where the labor process is practically independent of visual perception.

A person receives 90% of information through the organs of vision. Light has a positive effect on metabolism, cardiovascular system, neuropsychic sphere. Rational lighting contributes to an increase in labor productivity and safety. With insufficient lighting and its poor quality, the visual analyzers get tired quickly, and the trauma increases. Too high brightness causes the phenomenon of glare, dysfunction of the eye.

Artificial lighting: created by artificial light sources (incandescent lamp, etc.). It is used in the absence or lack of natural. By appointment it happens: worker, emergency, evacuation, security, duty.

According to the device, it can be: local, general, combined. It is impossible to arrange one local lighting.

Rational artificial lighting should provide normal working conditions with an acceptable consumption of funds, materials and electricity.

Before the invention of super-bright white LEDs (that is, with a wide spectrum of radiation), mankind, it would seem, had the widest arsenal of electric light sources. The most common are incandescent bulbs. Simple, cheap, unpretentious, for a long time they were the absolute champion in prevalence, along the way evolving into another subspecies - halogen lamps, the most powerful in terms of luminous flux. But with all their advantages, incandescent lamps also had a number of significant disadvantages: low efficiency, demanding supply voltage, structural fragility and fragility, susceptibility to failure from vibration and overloads. Not to mention the fact that it is almost impossible to create an incandescent lamp of, say, blue color - to get blue color, the filament needs to be heated up to tens of thousands of degrees Celsius - none of the known metals or alloys can withstand such a temperature. Therefore, different colors of the glow were obtained by using light filters, of course, reducing the luminous flux by orders of magnitude. In general, it is ineffective. And the strong heating of incandescent lamps constantly led to installation and placement problems.

Gas-filled fluorescent lamps seemed more interesting. There, a phosphor coating applied to the inner side of the lamp bulb served as a light source. The phosphor was made to glow by ultraviolet radiation, obtained by passing a high-voltage discharge through the gas inside the flask. Lamps of this type have a higher efficiency, a comfortable visible light spectrum. But they are more expensive, less reliable, and require a complex high-voltage power supply. Not to mention the fact that in addition to visible light, they also emit ultraviolet light up to the X-ray spectrum. A little, but they emit - and this can harm human health.

There are many more special types of lamps. These are induction, mercury, arc lamps, neon light sources, xenon arc lamps, various types of gas discharge lamps. But they all have a number of disadvantages and are suitable only for a narrow field of application. LEDs, even at today's technological level, have such a wide application potential that it is quite possible to assume that LEDs will soon replace almost all other types of electrical light sources. Consider the advantages and disadvantages of LED lamps.

Advantages of LED light source:

High efficiency. LED lamps use electricity most economically, allowing you to obtain a ratio (luminous intensity / watt of energy) two orders of magnitude (one hundred times!) Better than that of the most advanced incandescent lamps. That is, for the same illumination, a hundred times less electricity is required.

Almost zero inertia of LEDs.

The lifespan of LED bulbs is at least 25 times that of a traditional incandescent light bulb.

Unlike conventional lamps, the ability to obtain any color of radiation in the visible and invisible spectra, from infrared to hard ultraviolet.

Safety of use. There is no significant heating, no spurious radiation, no dangerously high voltage is needed, no toxic materials are used, no danger of injury from explosion or destruction of the lighting fixture.

Ease of creating directional lights.

The disadvantages include so far a very high price. LED lamps have not yet become widespread (although it is clear that this is a matter of time), which leads to a high cost. The second drawback is akin to the first - a special power source is required - a stable current.

An aspiration network with a capacity of I, hourly removes organic dust P from the equipment in an amount G. Before being released into the atmosphere, the air is cleaned of dust in a cyclone. Dust concentration in the air at the exit from the cyclone Svyh

Determine the efficiency of air purification in a cyclone. Is the dust content of the air discharged in accordance with the regulations?

What factors determine the cleaning efficiency of dust collection equipment? Indicate the advantages and disadvantages of cyclones.

The efficiency of air purification in a cyclone is determined by the formula:

E = L - Svyh/ 100

E = 16 - 55 /100 = 0,23

The factor that determines the efficiency of cleaning dust-collecting equipment is the correct use of the apparatus; cleaning cost; power consumption; performance.

Cyclones are easy to design and manufacture, reliable, high-performance, can be used to clean aggressive and high-temperature gases and gas mixtures. The disadvantages are high hydraulic resistance, the impossibility of collecting dust with small particle sizes and low durability (especially when cleaning gases from dust with high abrasive properties).

accident pressure safe lighting

Introduction

1. Types of artificial lighting

2 Functional purpose of artificial lighting

3 Sources of artificial lighting. Incandescent lamps

3.1 Types of incandescent lamps

3.2. Incandescent lamp design

3.3. Advantages and disadvantages of incandescent lamps

4. Gas discharge lamps. General characteristics. Application area. Views

4.1. Sodium gas discharge lamp

4.2. Fluorescent Lamp

4.3. Mercury Discharge Lamp

Bibliography

Introduction

The purpose of artificial lighting is to create favorable conditions for visibility, maintain a person's well-being and reduce eye fatigue. In artificial light, all objects look different than in daylight. This happens because the position, spectral composition and intensity of the radiation sources change.

The history of artificial lighting began when humans began to use fire. A bonfire, torch and torch were the first artificial light sources. Then came the oil lamps and candles. At the beginning of the 19th century, they learned to emit gas and refined petroleum products, a kerosene lamp appeared, which is still used today.

When the wick is ignited, a luminous flame is generated. A flame emits light only when a solid is heated by the flame. It is not combustion that generates light, but only substances brought to an incandescent state emit light. In the flame, glowing soot particles emit light. This can be seen by placing the glass over the flame of a candle or a kerosene lamp.

Oil lamps appeared on the streets of Moscow and St. Petersburg in the 30s of the 18th century. Then the oil was replaced with an alcohol-turpentine mixture. Later, kerosene and, finally, luminescent gas, which was obtained by artificial means, began to be used as a combustible substance. The light output of such sources was very low due to the low color temperature of the flame. It did not exceed 2000K.

In terms of color temperature, artificial light is very different from daylight, and this difference has long been noticed by the change in the color of objects during the transition from daylight to evening artificial light. First of all, a change in the color of the clothes was noticed. In the twentieth century, with the widespread use of electric lighting, color change with the transition to artificial lighting decreased, but did not disappear.

Today, a rare person knows about factories that produced lighting gas. Gas was obtained by heating coal in retorts. Retorts are large metal or earthen hollow vessels that are filled with charcoal and heated in a furnace. The released gas was purified and collected in gas storage facilities for lighting gas.

More than a hundred years ago, in 1838, the St. Petersburg Gas Lighting Society built the first gas plant. By the end of the 19th century, gas tanks appeared in almost all large cities of Russia. Streets, railway stations, factories, theaters and residential buildings were lit with gas. In Kiev, engineer A.E. Struve installed gas lighting in 1872.

The creation of direct current electric generators driven by a steam engine made it possible to widely use the possibilities of electricity. First of all, the inventors took care of the light sources and paid attention to the properties of the electric arc, which was first observed by Vasily Vladimirovich Petrov in 1802. The dazzling light made it possible to hope that people would be able to give up candles, a torch, a kerosene lamp and even gas lanterns.

In arc luminaires, we had to constantly push the electrodes set by "noses" to each other - they burned out quickly enough. At first they were shifted manually, then dozens of regulators appeared, the simplest of which was the Arshro regulator. The luminaire consisted of a fixed positive electrode attached to a bracket and a movable negative electrode connected to a regulator. The regulator consisted of a coil and a block with a weight.

When the lamp was turned on, a current flowed through the coil, the core was drawn into the coil and removed the negative electrode from the positive one. The arc was ignited automatically. With a decrease in the current, the pull-in force of the coil decreased and the negative electrode was lifted by the load. This and other systems were not widely used due to their low reliability.

In 1875, Pavel Nikolaevich Yablochkov proposed a reliable and simple solution. He placed the carbon electrodes in parallel, separating them with an insulating layer. The invention was a tremendous success, and the "Yablochkov candle" or "Russian light" was widespread in Europe.

Artificial lighting is provided in rooms in which there is not enough natural light, or for lighting a room during hours of the day when there is no natural light.

1. Types of artificial lighting

Artificial lighting can be common(all production premises are illuminated by the same type of lamps, evenly spaced above the illuminated surface and equipped with lamps of the same power) and combined(to the general lighting, local lighting is added to the work places with lamps located at the apparatus, machine tool, devices, etc.). The use of only local lighting is unacceptable, as the sharp contrast between brightly lit and unlit areas fatigues the eyes, slows down the process of work and can cause accidents.

2. Functional purpose of artificial lighting

By functional purpose, artificial lighting is divided into working, duty, emergency.

Work lighting mandatory in all rooms and illuminated areas to ensure the normal work of people and traffic.

Emergency lighting switched on outside working hours.

Emergency lighting is provided to ensure minimum illumination in the production area in case of a sudden shutdown of the working lighting.

In modern multi-span one-story buildings without skylights with one side glazing, natural and artificial lighting (combined lighting) are used simultaneously during the daytime. It is important that both types of lighting are in harmony with one another. In this case, it is advisable to use fluorescent lamps for artificial lighting.

3. Sources of artificial lighting... Incandescent lamps.

In modern lighting installations designed to illuminate industrial premises, incandescent, halogen and gas-discharge lamps are used as light sources.

Naka lamplivonia- an electric light source, the luminous body of which is the so-called incandescent body (incandescent body is a conductor heated by the flow of an electric current to a high temperature). As a material for the manufacture of the filament, tungsten and alloys based on it are currently used almost exclusively. At the end of the XIX - the first half of the XX century. The filament body was made of a more affordable and easy-to-process material - carbon fiber.

3.1. Typesincandescent lamps

The industry produces various types of incandescent lamps:

vacuum, gas filled(filler mixture of argon and nitrogen), bispiral, with krypton filling .

3.2. Incandescent lamp design

Fig. 1 Incandescent lamp

Modern lamp design. In the diagram: 1 - flask; 2 - flask cavity (evacuated or filled with gas); 3 - glow body; 4, 5 - electrodes (current inputs); 6 - hooks-holders of the heating body; 7 - lamp leg; 8 - external link of the current lead, fuse; 9 - base case; 10 - base insulator (glass); 11 - contact of the bottom of the base.

The designs of the incandescent lamp are very diverse and depend on the purpose of a particular type of lamp. However, the following elements are common to all incandescent lamps: incandescent body, bulb, current leads. Depending on the characteristics of a particular type of lamp, holders of the incandescent body of various designs can be used; lamps can be made baseless or with different types of base, have an additional outer bulb and other additional structural elements.

3.3. Advantages and disadvantages of incandescent lamps

Advantages:

Low cost

Small size

Unnecessary control gear

When turned on, they light up almost instantly

No toxic components and, as a consequence, no need for infrastructure for collection and disposal

Ability to work both on direct current (any polarity) and on alternating current

The ability to manufacture lamps for a wide variety of voltages (from fractions of a volt to hundreds of volts)

No flicker or hum when operating on AC power

Continuous spectrum of radiation

Electromagnetic impulse resistance

The ability to use dimmers

Normal operation at low ambient temperature

Disadvantages:

Low luminous efficacy

Relatively short service life

Sharp dependence of luminous efficacy and service life on voltage

The color temperature is only in the range of 2300-2900 K, which gives the light a yellowish tint

Incandescent lamps are a fire hazard. 30 minutes after turning on the incandescent lamps, the temperature of the outer surface, depending on the power, reaches the following values: 40 W - 145 ° C, 75 W - 250 ° C, 100 W - 290 ° C, 200 W - 330 ° C. When lamps come into contact with textiles, their bulb heats up even more. Straw that touches the surface of the 60W lamp will ignite after about 67 minutes.

The luminous efficiency of incandescent lamps, defined as the ratio of the power of the rays of the visible spectrum to the power consumed from the electrical network, is very small and does not exceed 4%

4. Discharge lamps... General characteristics. Application area. Views.

Recently, it is customary to call gas-discharge lamps discharge lamps. Subdivided into high and low pressure discharge lamps. The vast majority of discharge lamps operate in mercury vapor. They have a high efficiency of converting electrical energy into light. Efficiency is measured in lumen / watt ratio.

Discharge light sources (gas-discharge lamps) are gradually replacing the previously familiar incandescent lamps, but the disadvantages are the line spectrum of radiation, fatigue from flickering light, noise of control gear (ballast), the harmfulness of mercury vapor if it enters the room when the bulb is destroyed, the impossibility of instant re-ignition for lamps high pressure.

In the context of the continuing rise in energy prices and the rise in the cost of lighting fixtures, lamps and components, the need for the introduction of technologies to reduce non-production costs becomes more and more urgent.

General characteristics of gas-discharge lamps

Service life from 3000 hours to 20,000.

Efficiency from 40 to 150 lm / W.

Emitting color: warm white (3000 K) or neutral white (4200 K)

Color rendering: good (3000 K: Ra> 80), excellent (4200 K: Ra> 90)

Compact size of the emitting arc, allows you to create light beams of high intensity

Scopes of gas discharge lamps.

Shops and showcases, offices and public places

Decorative outdoor lighting: lighting buildings and pedestrian areas

Artistic lighting of theaters, cinema and stage (professional lighting equipment)

Types of gas discharge lamps.

The greatest efficiency, today, are sodium vapor discharge lamps... In addition to this type of discharge lamps, fluorescent lamps(low pressure discharge lamps), metal halide lamps, arc mercuryfluorescent lamps... Less common lamps in pairs xenona.

4.1. Sodium gas discharge lamp

Sodium gas discharge lamp(НЛ) is an electric light source, the luminous body of which is a gas discharge in sodium vapor. Therefore, sodium resonance radiation is predominant in the spectrum of such lamps; the lamps give a bright orange-yellow light. This specific feature of NL (monochromatic radiation) causes an unsatisfactory color rendering quality when illuminated by them. Due to the peculiarities of the spectrum, CL are used mainly for street lighting, utilitarian, architectural and decorative. The use of NL for lighting industrial and public buildings is extremely limited and is determined, as a rule, by requirements of aesthetic nature.

Depending on the value of the partial pressure of sodium vapor, lamps are divided into sodium lampslow pressure(NLND) and high pressure sodium lamps(NLVD)

Historically, the first sodium lamps were created low pressure sodium lamps (LND)... In the 1930s. this type of light sources became widespread in Europe. In the USSR, experiments were carried out to master the production of NLND, there were even models that were mass-produced, but their introduction into the practice of general lighting was interrupted due to the development of more technologically advanced DRL lamps, which, in turn, began to be supplanted by NLVD.

NLNDs differ in a number of features that significantly complicate both their production and operation. First, sodium vapor at a high arc temperature is very aggressive on the glass of the bulb, destroying it. Because of this, NLND burners are usually made of borosilicate glass. Secondly, the effectiveness of the LND is highly dependent on the ambient temperature. To ensure an acceptable temperature regime of the burner, the latter is placed in an external glass flask, which plays the role of a "thermos".

Creation high pressure sodium lamps(NLVD) required a different solution to the problem of protecting the burner material from the effects of sodium vapor: a technology was developed for manufacturing tubular burners from aluminum oxide Al2O3. Such a ceramic burner made of a thermally and chemically resistant material that transmits well to light is placed in an outer bulb made of heat-resistant glass. The cavity of the outer flask is evacuated and thoroughly degassed. The latter is necessary to maintain the normal operating temperature of the burner and to protect the niobium current inputs from atmospheric gases.

The NLVD burner is filled with a buffer gas, which serves as gas mixtures of various compositions, and sodium amalgam (an alloy with mercury) is dosed into them. There are NLVD "with improved environmental properties" - mercury-free.

4.2. Fluorescent Lamp

Fluorescent Lamp- gas-discharge light source, the luminous flux of which is determined mainly by the glow of phosphors under the influence of ultraviolet radiation of the discharge; the visible glow of the discharge does not exceed a few percent.

Fluorescent lamps are widely used for general lighting, while their luminous efficiency is several times higher than that of incandescent lamps for the same purpose. The service life of fluorescent lamps can be up to 20 times longer than the service life of incandescent lamps, provided that sufficient quality of power supply, ballast and compliance with the restrictions on the number of switching operations are ensured, otherwise they quickly fail. The most common type of such source is a mercury fluorescent lamp. It is a glass tube filled with mercury vapor with a phosphor layer applied to the inner surface.

Fluorescent lamps are the most widespread and economical light source for creating diffused lighting in public buildings: offices, schools, educational and design institutes, hospitals, shops, banks, enterprises. With the advent of modern compact fluorescent lamps, designed to be installed in conventional E27 or E14 sockets instead of incandescent lamps, they began to gain popularity in everyday life. The use of electronic ballasts (ballasts) instead of traditional electromagnetic ones can improve the characteristics of fluorescent lamps - get rid of flickering and hum, further increase efficiency, and increase compactness.

4.3. Mercury Discharge Lamp

Mercury gdischarge lamps are an electrical light source that uses a gas discharge in mercury vapor to generate optical radiation. For the designation of all types of such light sources in domestic lighting technology, the term "discharge lamp" is used, included in the International Lighting Dictionary, approved by the International Commission on Lighting.

Depending on the filling pressure, a distinction is made between discharge lampslow pressure(RLND), discharge lampshigh pressure(RLVD) and discharge lampsultra-high pressure(RLSVD).

TO low pressure discharge lamps include mercury lamps with a partial pressure of mercury vapor in a steady state of less than 100 Pa. For low-pressure discharge lamps, this value is about 100 kPa, and for ultra-high-pressure discharge lamps, 1 MPa or more.

For general lighting of workshops, streets, industrial enterprises and other facilities that do not impose high requirements on the quality of color rendition, they are used high pressure discharge lamps type DRL.

DRL(Arc Mercury Luminophornaya) is a designation of RLVD adopted in domestic lighting engineering, in which, to correct the color of the luminous flux aimed at improving color rendering, the radiation of a phosphor applied to the inner surface of the bulb is used.

DRL lamp device

The first DRL lamps were manufactured with two-electrode technology. To ignite such lamps, a source of high-voltage pulses was required. As it was used the device PURL-220 (Launcher for Mercury Lamps for a voltage of 220 V). The electronics of those times did not allow the creation of sufficiently reliable igniting devices, and the PURL included a gas spark gap, which had a shorter service life than the lamp itself. Therefore, in the 1970s. the industry gradually discontinued the production of two-electrode lamps. They were replaced by four-electrode ones, which do not require external ignition devices.

To match the electrical parameters of the lamp and the power source, almost all types of radar lines with a falling external current-voltage characteristic need to use a ballast, which in most cases is a choke connected in series with the lamp.

Fig. 1 High pressure mercury lamp.

The DRL four-electrode lamp consists of outer glass bulb(1) equipped with threaded base(2). Mounted on the lamp leg is an external bulb mounted on the geometric axis quartz burner (discharge tube)(3) filled with argon with added mercury. Four-electrode lamps have main electrodes(4) and adjacent auxiliary (ignition) electrodes(5). Each ignition electrode is connected to the main electrode located at the opposite end of the discharge tube through current limiting resistance(6). The auxiliary electrodes facilitate the ignition of the lamp and make its operation more stable during the start-up period.

Recently, a number of foreign firms have been manufacturing three-electrode DRL lamps equipped with only one ignition electrode. This design differs only in greater manufacturability in production, having no other advantages over the four-electrode design.

Operating principle

The lamp burner is made of a refractory and chemically resistant transparent material (quartz glass or special ceramics) and is filled with strictly dosed portions of inert gases. In addition, metallic mercury is introduced into the burner, which in a cold lamp has the form of a compact ball or settles in the form of a deposit on the walls of the flask and (or) the electrodes. The luminous body of the RLVD is a column of an electric arc discharge.

The ignition process of a lamp equipped with ignition electrodes is as follows. When a supply voltage is applied to the lamp, a glow discharge occurs between the closely spaced main and ignition electrodes, which is facilitated by a small distance between them, which is significantly less than the distance between the main electrodes, therefore, the breakdown voltage of this gap is also lower. The appearance in the cavity of the discharge tube of a sufficiently large number of charge carriers (free electrons and positive ions) promotes the breakdown of the gap between the main electrodes and the ignition of a glow discharge between them, which almost instantly turns into an arc discharge.

Stabilization of the electrical and light parameters of the lamp occurs 10-15 minutes after switching on. During this time, the lamp current significantly exceeds the nominal and is limited only by the resistance of the ballast. The duration of the starting mode strongly depends on the ambient temperature - the colder, the longer the lamp will light up.

The electrical discharge in the torch of a mercury arc lamp creates visible blue or violet (rather than white) radiation, as well as powerful ultraviolet radiation. The latter excites the glow of a phosphor deposited on the inner wall of the outer bulb of the lamp. The reddish glow of the phosphor, mixing with the white-greenish radiation of the burner, gives a bright light close to white.

A change in the supply voltage up or down causes a corresponding change in the luminous flux. A deviation of the supply voltage by 10 - 15% is permissible and is accompanied by a change in the luminous flux of the lamp by 25 - 30%. When the supply voltage drops to less than 80% of the nominal, the lamp may not light up, and the lit lamp may go out.

The lamp becomes very hot when it burns. This requires the use of heat-resistant wires in lighting devices with mercury arc lamps, and makes serious demands on the quality of the cartridge contacts. Since the pressure in the burner of a hot lamp increases significantly, its breakdown voltage also increases. The supply voltage is insufficient to ignite a hot lamp. Therefore, the lamp must cool down before re-igniting. This effect is a significant disadvantage of high-pressure mercury arc lamps, since even a very short interruption in the power supply extinguishes them, and re-ignition requires a long cooling pause.

Traditional scopes of DRL lamps

Lighting of open areas, industrial, agricultural and warehouse premises. Wherever this is due to the need for great energy savings, these lamps are gradually being replaced by NLVD (lighting of cities, large construction sites, high production workshops, etc.).

Bibliography 1. Life safety. Lecture notes. Part 2 / P.G. Belov, A.F. Koziakov. S.V. Belov and others; Ed. S.V. Belova. - M .: VASOT. 1993.2. Life safety / N.G. Zanko. G.A. Korsakov, K. R. Malayan et al. Ed. HE. Rusaka. - S.-P .: Publishing house of the St. Petersburg Forestry Academy, 1996 3. Reference book on lighting engineering / Ed. Yu.B. Eisenberg. M .: Energoatomizdat, 1995.