Borrowings from the Russian language in the English vocabulary. Borrowing words in modern English
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Introduction
IN modern world English is the most important means of international communication. The expansion of international contacts, the superiority of English-speaking countries in almost all areas of activity contribute to the constant emergence of English borrowings in the Russian language. Perhaps this is a manifestation of the "globalization" of the English language, which is so often spoken and written about today. Linguists also mention such a phenomenon as Anglo-Russian bilingualism, which, perhaps, is a consequence of this very “globalization” of the English language. In the dictionary of S.I. Ozhegov, anglicism is a word or turn of speech in any language, borrowed from English or modeled on an English word and expression.
Of course, the abundance of foreign vocabulary in the Russian language cannot but excite the native speakers of the Russian language, especially the older generation. “Young people get used to the lexical phenomena of the common Russian-English language, thereby, in a sense, losing their originality and traditionality. mother tongue and destroying its integrity,” they think. But it’s true, many young people consider foreign vocabulary more attractive, prestigious, fashionable, “sonorous”: for example, they pronounce “celebrity” rather than celebrity; “top manager”, not a leader; "exclusive", not exclusive; "top model", not the best model; “price list”, not a price list, “make-up”, not makeup; "image", not an image, "showman", not a host. It is very important to understand that language does not live in isolation from the society in which it develops; borrowing words is a natural and necessary process of language development, and there is no such language that would be completely free from foreign language influences. Most of the borrowed words have been successfully assimilated into Russian and are no longer perceived as foreign: president, mayor, radio, pudding, biscuit, sandwich, football, sofa, etc.
The purpose of this research work is to study English borrowings as a linguistic phenomenon. The objectives of the research activities are:
determination of characteristic suffixal signs of anglicisms for their recognition in Russian;
allocation of spheres of human activity with the highest concentration of anglicisms;
study of the reasons for the large flow of anglicisms into the Russian language;
study of the typology of anglicisms;
the study of slang as a conductor of anglicisms in the native language;
determination of the pros and cons of the presence of anglicisms in the Russian language
Main part
Examples of anglicisms in Russian speech can be heard everywhere. “Newfangled gadgets and devices are especially popular among young buyers. On TNT on Saturday evening, viewers can watch a dance battle. The program "Dances" has announced another casting for professional dancers throughout Russia. An unlucky person is called a loser. Facades of adobe houses are often finished with German siding. There are psychological methods aimed at measuring the IQ of pupils and students. Without promotion, it is difficult to succeed in the workplace. Tourists enjoy orange juice on vacation. Broadcasts of the summits and reports summarizing their results are of great interest to the audience of mature and old age. Series usually ends with happy endings, etc.” Ordinary people are familiar with numerous economic and financial terms, such as: barter, broker, dealer, distributor, marketing, investment, loans, etc. New sports for sports fans sports activities: windsurfing, arm wrestling, freestyle, skateboard, snowboard, kickboxing. With the development of computerization, terms related to computer technology have appeared: not only the word computer itself, but also a display, file, interface, printer, scanner, laptop, driver, browser, website, etc. Well, the women's cosmetic bag is replete with gizmos, for which only English lexical units are used: concealer (corrector pencil), peeling cream (removing small dead skin particles), lifting cream (cream that tightens the skin), perfume (perfume), eye liner (eyeliner), etc.
How can you recognize anglicisms in speech? This tip will help those who do not know English at all.
The spheres of human activity where Anglicisms abound in large quantities are also identified:
|
Politics / economics / positions |
summit, briefing, speaker, rating, holding, electorate, voucher, impeachment, image maker, speechwriter, investment, sponsor, barrel, media, recession, marketing, leasing, tender, retail, offshore, price list, (top) manager, promoter , distributor, dealer, businesswoman, mentality |
|
Food / clothing / trade |
hot dog, cheeseburger, hamburger, fishburger, barbecue, chocopie, popcorn, (orange) fresh, yogurt, pudding, Coca-Cola, Nuts Twix, Sprite, fast food, lunch, shorts, boots, bandana, cotton, top , non-roll (pillow), multi-brand, unisex, casual, catering, shopping, shopaholic, sale, gel, SPA-salon, supermarket, VIP-hall, second-hand, discount, catering |
|
shaping, fitness, diving, surfing, bodybuilding, snowboarding, paintball, freestyle, wrestling, power lifting, bowling, training, skating rink, forward, goalkeeper, biker, sniper, overtime, step class, contest, scooter |
|
|
Art / radio / TV |
thriller western , hit - parade, meteotime, supersta, superman, skinhead |
|
Home / life / office |
air conditioning, cooler, mixer, toaster, blender, siding, roller blinds, roller shutters, antifreeze, boulet magic, Vanish, Fairy, Comet, Head & Shoulders, Dove, Tide, perfume, cleaning company, scrub, spray, color, diapers, stapler, tape |
|
Information and Communication Technologies |
computer, monitor, display, calculator, laptop, printer, scanner, CD, DVD, processor, device, hacker, upgrade, click, Internet, website, blog, emoticon, SMS |
So, borrowing words is a natural process of language development. Enough a large number of linguists remain optimistic about the influx of anglicisms into the Russian language. After all, lexical borrowings enrich the language. At the same time, the main vocabulary is preserved, and the grammatical structure of the language remains unchanged.
But still, what are the reasons for such a huge flow of Anglicisms in Russian speech?
- the absence of a corresponding concept in the base of the Russian language. In connection with the progress in the computer, technical, financial and economic fields, a large number of Anglicisms poured into the Russian language. In the dictionary of a Russian person, there are no native equivalents for, say, a laptop, organizer, timer, scanner, tuner, skype, blogger, franchise, debit, charter, impeachment, etc. It is easier to use existing words from another language than to invent new ones. Probably, these anglicisms have already become international, and are recognizable not only in Russian.
The presence of a Russian lexical unit that does not quite accurately designate a concept, and which over time is replaced by more accurate Anglicism. For example, an image instead of an image, a brand instead of a brand, a name, a tour instead of a trip, a vocabulary instead of a vocabulary, fitness instead of exercise, an investor instead of a person who invests money, a spray instead of an atomizer, etc. In this case, these borrowings are more specific, easier to pronounce than Russian ones.
- the tendency to use one borrowed word instead of a descriptive phrase. For example: a hotel for car tourists - a motel, a short press conference for journalists - a briefing, a summit meeting - a summit, figure skating - freestyle, a marksman - a sniper, an assassin - a hit man, sprinting - a sprint, a place for car parking - parking / parking, retail trade - retail, etc.
- tribute to fashion. Knowledge of the English language is considered highly prestigious. There are a lot of people studying English and imbued with it. They want to look modern and use attractive anglicisms in Russian speech with great pleasure: shopping, presentation, rating, party, performance, show, chart, boyfriend, personal account, service, security, reception, etc.
- expansion of interstate and international relations between Russia and English-speaking countries;
- participation of Russia in international cultural events, festivals, competitions, rallies, fashion shows;
- foreign tourism;
-exchange of specialists, functioning of joint ventures.
These facts are both the causes and conditions for the appearance of anglicisms in the Russian language.
Linguists distinguish the following groups of English borrowings :
Direct borrowing. The word occurs in Russian in approximately the same form and meaning as in the original language. These are the words: weekend - weekend, money - money, cash - cash, certificate - supporting document, change - exchange, etc.
hybrids. These words are formed by adding a Russian suffix, prefix and ending to a foreign root. In this case, the meaning of the foreign word - the source - changes somewhat. For example, buzz (busy - restless, fussy).
Tracing paper. Words of foreign origin, used with the preservation of their phonetic and graphic appearance (menu, disk, virus, lunch, credit, tuxedo, jeans).
exoticisms. Words that characterize the specific national customs of other peoples and are used in describing non-Russian reality. A distinctive feature of these words is that they do not have Russian synonyms. For example, chips, hot dog, cheeseburger. English exoticisms include the words: miss, mrs, mr, sir, gentleman, pound sterling, lord, scout, peer, pub, Scotland yard, etc.
Barbarisms. English words transferred to Russian soil that retain their phonetic and graphic ‘foreignness’. These are foreign words that stand out sharply against the background of Russian vocabulary. They are not recorded in the dictionaries of the Russian language. The active use of anglicisms-barbarisms has become a sign of our time. For example: face control, dress code, know-how, xy from xy, message, respect, battle, happy ending, weekend, teenager, receptionist, make-up, relax, user, online, baby, gambler, non-stop and others. Anglicisms are especially popular in the names of TV programs, shops, clubs: talk shows; dog show; strip show; Show Business; hit parade; Fan club; Brain ring; Fan park; Second hand; Coach Center; call center; Tennis Hall; Home Credit Bank; Real comfort; Sweet Mom. English-language inclusions in the Russian language adjoin barbarisms: ok, good bye, hello, hi, wow, oops, ouch, etc.
Composites. Words consisting of two English words, for example, second-hand - a store selling used clothes, video salon - a room for watching movies.
Jargon. Words that appeared as a result of a distortion of the original word, for example, cracked, like, straight, bucks, paronty.
Slang is considered to be the conductor of anglicisms in Russian speech. . He pushed and continues to push the normative vocabulary. People are used to it and sometimes they don’t even realize that certain words are not typical for the literary language. Sometimes we do not attach importance to where they come from in our lives, and sometimes what they mean.
In this case, the Russian language is being anglotized. The younger generation cannot but use English words in their speech, since many of them have long penetrated into the Russian language. On the one hand, the appearance of new words expands the vocabulary of native speakers, and on the other hand, its originality and unique beauty are lost. The words they pronounce in the Russian manner cannot always express the same thing as the words of their native language can express.
Borrowings from the English language cover all areas of youth life. The field of study is represented by the following lexical units (teacher, institute, dep, English, hostel, jim, reading room, test, etc.)
There are slang terms related to the field of leisure. They can also be divided into the following categories:
Various student events - party, party, point, fighting, etc.
Borrowed by students from the jargon of computer scientists and programmers - cybord, mouse, message, etc.
Borrowed from the jargon of musicians - rock, pop, jazz, blues, rap, drummer, clubber, dancer, shopper, etc.
Clarification of relations - kipish, battle, etc.
Interpersonal relationships - friend, rally (sign to meet)
Names of clothing and accessories - dress, trusera, ti-short, pins, rings, etc.
Body parts - face, typhus, hands, feet, fingers, nails, etc.
Names household appliances-teevee, fredge, comp. etc.
Nouns denoting money - money, cash, etc.
Names of family members - parent, phaser, uncle, anti, etc.
Evaluative adverbs and adjectives borrowed from English - great, bad, cool, etc.
Of course, the use of anglicisms has its advantages. Borrowing from English helps students learn it as quickly as possible. Sometimes it is even easier for them to express their thoughts and feelings using English rather than their native language. Among the main reasons for the use of English words in speech, adolescents and young people indicate the ability to transfer information to each other, so that the teachers around them, the parents did not understand what was being said.
Conclusion
Having considered the problem of anglicisms in Russian today, we can draw the following conclusion:
Anglicisms are an interesting linguistic phenomenon, the role of which in the Russian language is very significant.
Numerous anglicisms that penetrate our speech are a natural phenomenon, reflecting the economic, political, cultural, social ties and relations between Russia and other countries, in particular with English speakers.
Many people believe that anglicisms violate the generally accepted language norm and 'pollut' the Russian language. Some linguists are sounding the alarm about the English language expansion, leading to the gradual displacement of Russian lexical units from oral speech. However, the influx of borrowings in the Russian language, which has recently taken on a total character, should not be regarded as a completely negative phenomenon. Over time, words either go out of circulation and are forgotten, or are used in limited areas (professionalism, slang), or lose their ‘foreignness’ and enter the main composition of the language, thus enriching the Russian language.
Due to the penetration of Anglicisms into Russian speech, there is some loss of interest in the native language, Russian literature and culture.
English-Russian bilingualism forms not only Western speech patterns, but also Western thinking and the Western way of life in general.
The Russian language should be protected. The linguistic means of the Russian language should also be protected, and, where possible, use only them to express one's thoughts, emotions and feelings. Anglicisms should not be used always and everywhere, and always with full awareness of their meanings and the relevance of their use in everyday speech. When using foreign vocabulary, you should remember: to study a foreign language, to learn a foreign culture is a great thing, in the process of which it is also necessary to preserve the originality, uniqueness and originality of your native, Russian language.
- M.A.Goldenkov. Modern active English. KARO. St. Petersburg, 2003.
English - Russian Dictionary of American Slang // Translation and compilation by T. Rotenberg and V Ivanova - M .: Infoserv, 1994
Dyakov A.I. Reasons for the intensive borrowing of anglicisms in modern Russian. // Language and culture. - Novosibirsk, 2003.-p.35-43
Kato Lomb. How I learn languages.// Mann, Ivanov and Ferber, 2016.
Krysin L.P. Modern dictionary of foreign words//AST-Press, 2016
- Sologub O.P. Assimilation of foreign structural elements in the Russian language // Science. University. 2002. Proceedings of the Third Scientific Conference. - Novosibirsk, 2002. - S. 130-134.
INTRODUCTION
The development of human society is the development of all its constituent cultures, and, accordingly, of all languages. Cultures undergo a certain historical development both independently of other cultures and (to a very large extent) in interaction with them. Contacts occur in all areas - politics, economics, art, everyday life - and lead to significant changes in the way of life, worldview, and, of course, in language. Cultures mutually borrow phenomena and concepts; languages - their designations. Thus, the cultures and languages of different peoples are enriched. The term “enrichment”, however, should not be understood as the unquestioning acceptance of any borrowings into the language system, which happens quite often and leads to its oversaturation with alien and unjustified elements in the presence of its own, familiar designations for various phenomena.
Borrowing must be deliberate; if possible, use the means of your own language, extraneous inclusions should be avoided. However, one should not go to the other extreme - a complete denial of any borrowings and attempts not only to avoid new ones, but also to replace borrowed elements already entrenched in the language with native ones. The need for such a replacement is not only highly controversial, but also hardly feasible on the scale proposed by some linguists: many of the newest borrowings come into the language as designations for new phenomena that have no analogues in a given culture; words borrowed by many languages become internationalisms and in the current era of globalization greatly facilitate international communication.
As you know, vocabulary is the most dynamic side of the language in any period of time. It represents the smallest degree of abstraction in the language, since the word is always subject-oriented; it can be borrowed, formed, formed anew, or from elements available in the language.
In our work, we consider borrowing as one of the main ways of word formation in the English language. Words of foreign origin are called borrowings.
A significant contribution to the development of knowledge about borrowings was made by such linguists as N.V. Gabdreeva, V.A. Buryakovskaya, N.N. Volostnova, G.K. Gimaletdinova, N.M. Ermakova, M.N. Zakamulina, E.Kh. Khabibullina, T.E. Listrova-Pravda, N.M. Mekeko, L.G. Ratushnaya, D.R. Rakhmatullina, A.R. Timergaleeva and others.
In view of the foregoing, the theme of our thesis work was chosen: "Borrowings in English and methods of translation."
The relevance of our work is determined by the fact that borrowed vocabulary is taking more and more active positions in the lexical system of languages, in particular in English and Russian, thereby having a significant impact on the functioning of truly national linguistic units of a particular language.
The object of the study is borrowed vocabulary in the English language.
The subject of the research is the ways of translating borrowed vocabulary from English into Russian.
The purpose of the study is to consider the features of the functioning of borrowings in the English language and to determine the specifics of their translation from English into Russian.
To achieve the goal of our study, we set the following tasks:
consider the essence of the concept and the sphere of functioning of borrowed vocabulary;
analyze various classifications of borrowings;
explore the sources of borrowings in English;
consider ways of transferring borrowings;
in practice to analyze the use of one or another method of translation.
Research structure. The work consists of an introduction, two sections - theoretical and practical, conclusion and list of references.
CHAPTER 1
.1 Borrowed vocabulary: the essence of the concept and the scope of functioning
Borrowing is a process, as a result of which a certain foreign language element appears and is fixed in the language; also such a foreign language element itself. This is an integral part of the functioning and historical change of the language, one of the main sources of replenishment of the vocabulary; it is also a full-fledged element of the language, which is part of its lexical wealth, serving as a source of new roots, word-building elements and precise terms. Borrowing in languages is one of the most important factors in their development. The process of borrowing lies at the very basis of language activity. Sound and formal uniformity within the same language is a consequence of borrowing by some individuals from others; in the same way, elements of the lexicon of one language are borrowed by another language - through the interaction of their speakers. The share of borrowed elements in languages is large, although it is not possible to accurately calculate their number, both due to the constant increase in the number of foreign elements penetrating into the language, and due to the assimilation process, which makes it difficult to establish the origin of the word. In each language, the following layers can be distinguished: words inherent in all languages of the same family; words common to a group, subgroup of related languages; native words of a particular language; borrowed words.
The borrowing of lexical elements from one language to another is a very ancient phenomenon and is already known to the languages of the ancient world.
In the process of its development, the English language encountered many languages, from which it borrowed a variety of words. They are not the same in number and specific gravity in the vocabulary of the English language.
The enrichment of the vocabulary of a language at the expense of the vocabulary of other languages is usually the result of various political, economic, and trade relations. Note that there is no generally accepted definition of the concept of culture, but if we consider culture as “a set of industrial, social and spiritual achievements of people”, then everything that is related to the reality surrounding a person, perceived and transformed by him, from household items to abstract philosophical categories, to some extent related to culture. In this case, with any interethnic interaction, there is an exchange of cultural information, which, in turn, cannot but be reflected in the language.
Often, when borrowing, a new word comes along with a new reality that did not exist in the culture of speakers of the borrowing language, and therefore was not fixed in the linguistic picture of the world. In some cases, a borrowed word comes as a synonym for a word that already existed in the vocabulary of the borrowing language (for example, the words import and export appeared as synonyms for Russian import and export).
International vocabulary occupies a special place among borrowings.
Scientific and technological progress is spreading more and more, and with it international words - “internationalisms” come into the languages of different countries.
International vocabulary is (from Latin inter - between + natio, nationis - people) words of common origin that exist in many languages with the same meaning, but are usually arranged in accordance with phonetic and morphological norms given language. The main part of the international vocabulary is made up of terms from the field of science and technology (geography, history, philosophy, logic, aspirin, flu, microscope, telegraph), socio-political life (party, constitution, socialism, communism, revolution, dictatorship, administration, republic) , economics (import, export, bank, credit, interest), literature and art (drama, comedy, tragedy, poet, opera, ballet, style). International words also include those that are usually borrowed unchanged by many languages from the language of the people who created these words along with the corresponding objects or phenomena. English sports, Russian Leninism, collective farm, satellite.
In the languages of Western countries, these words are most often borrowed, with inevitable changes, from the vocabulary of Greek and Latin, as well as from French and English that joined them later.
For a word to be considered international, it must generally occur in the following modern languages:
firstly, in most of the so-called Romance languages - French, Spanish, Italian and others;
in addition, at least in some Slavic languages - for example, in Russian and Serbian.
In languages where there is an ingrained tendency to abandon international vocabulary in favor of native words - we will call them "purist" for brevity (for example, in Icelandic or Finnish), there are almost no such words.
The wide prevalence of borrowings is explained primarily by the internationality of the literary process, the existence of a wide literary exchange between individual countries, and their mutual diffusion. Literary situations cannot be invented indefinitely. Once entered into the reader's consciousness, leaving a deep imprint there, a poetic image, theme, device can involuntarily influence the work of later writers, who reproduce it quite closely.
Borrowing in languages is one of the most important factors in their development. The process of borrowing lies at the very basis of language activity.
Sound and formal uniformity within the same language is a consequence of borrowing by some individuals from others; in the same way, elements of the lexicon of one language are borrowed by another language - through the interaction of their speakers.
The share of borrowed elements in languages is large, although it is not possible to accurately calculate their number, both due to the constant increase in the number of foreign elements penetrating the language, and due to the assimilation process, which makes it difficult to establish the origin of the word.
In each language, the following layers can be distinguished: words inherent in all languages of the same family; words common to a group, subgroup of related languages; native words of a particular language; borrowed words.
The meaning of a borrowed word in the receiving language may expand or contract. The expansion of the meaning is associated with the metaphorical transfer of a name to another denotation, based on the similarity of objects. So, the word volcano comes from the name of the Roman god of fire and metal Vulcan; borrowed from the German language, the word flak originally had only the meaning of "anti-aircraft gun", in English it acquired the meanings of "anti-aircraft fire", "opposition, resistance", and in American English "verbal fire, squabble, squabble". Also, when the meaning is expanded, the word can acquire new connotative meanings, for example, the word ersatz "replacement, surrogate" has acquired a disparaging connotation of "low quality, fake", which is absent in German. The opposite trend - the narrowing of the meaning - leads to a reduction in the range of denotations denoted by a given word, as a result of which the word passes into the category of special ones and becomes stylistically marked. Thus, the word ansatz, which has many meanings in German (“prefix, nozzle; sediment; formation; beginning, foundation; inclination”) is used in English only as a scientific term “approach to solving a problem”. The Latin velum "curtain, veil, veil" in English lost its meaning over time and is now used as the scientific term "soft sky".
Sometimes in the receiving language, the derived meaning of the word becomes more common than the main one, for example, claim is more often used in the meaning of “approve” rather than “claim”, issue is “question”, not “release”, source is “source of information”, not "origin".
Below we will consider the main reasons for borrowing.
The reasons for this phenomenon are varied, but the same for all languages; among them are intralinguistic and external, extralinguistic. Intra-linguistics include the following:
) the need to name an object or phenomenon, due to the absence of the designated phenomenon in the cognitive base of the receptor language. This is the main and most ancient reason for borrowing; along with a new phenomenon for the people, the name of the people (bistro, gondola, elephant) also enters the language of the people;
) the need for the name of an object or phenomenon, due to the inaccuracy of the existing name. In the presence of native and foreign words with a similar meaning, the English word has a more general meaning, and the borrowed word has both a general meaning and additional shades (Latin effluvium has not only the meaning of the English words exhalation, emanation "exhalation, selection", but also a connotative meaning " accompanied bad smell»; borrowed from the German angst conveys the meaning of "fear without any apparent reason" that is not inherent in the English word fear "fear in general").
The extralinguistic reasons are:
) socio-psychological: the expression of connotations that the corresponding unit does not have in the receiving language; for example, creating the effect of “prestige” (French boutique “a small store selling expensive, often unusual goods and located in an expensive area” and Latin emporium “large shopping center” are used not only to clarify the neutral English word shop when designating stores of precisely these types, but also in order to emphasize the prestige of a particular place of trade).
) the activation of international relations, the process of globalization, causing the emergence of a large number of internationalisms - words of one language, borrowed by many languages of the world.
As you can see, the appearance of borrowed lexemes in a language can be due to a number of specific reasons that can explain the presence of one or another borrowing in a particular language.
1.2 Classification of borrowings
There are many classifications of borrowed vocabulary proposed at different stages of the development of linguistic teachings. Let's consider the main ones.
Classification by source of borrowing
First of all, it must be remembered that the source of borrowing is the language from which the word is taken into the English vocabulary. However, the origin of the word may be different. So, for example, the source of the borrowing of the word paper is French (papier), while in its origin it is the Greek word papuros, papyrus. The word cinnabar (cinnabar, bright red color) is borrowed from Latin (cinnabaris), where it came from Greek (kinnabari), which in turn borrowed this word from one of the eastern languages.
The sources of borrowing words into English are numerous for historical reasons. Over the centuries, Britain entered into various contacts with many countries, was subjected to invasions and conquests, and later became the "mistress of the seas" and the mother country for a large number of colonies. All this led to intensive language contacts, which resulted in the mixed nature of the English lexical composition. The most significant influence on the English vocabulary came from Latin, French and Scandinavian languages.
Latin borrowings entered the English language in several waves. The earliest layer dates back to the time when the Germanic tribes of the Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians, even before moving to Britain, entered into trade and military contacts with the Romans. At this time, the designations of objects of material culture were mainly borrowed - English, sir (lat. Sarah), butter (lat. butyrum), copper (lat. cuprum), etc. Before the capture by the Germans, Britain was under the rule of the Roman Empire for about four hundred years . It was during this period that such borrowed words as street (lat. via strata), wall (lat. vallum), mint (lat. menta, moneta) and others appeared in English. Part of the borrowings from this period have survived only in toponyms. An example of a Latin word that we now find in place names is the element -Chester (Latin castra "camp") in Chester, Colchester, Manchester, Lancaster Gloucester, Worcester; the element -wich in Greenwich, Harwich goes back to the Latin vicus - "village". The next wave of Latin borrowings is associated with the Christianization of Britain. These include the words of the corresponding thematic group - priest (lat. presbuteros), minster (lat. monastermm), candle (lat. candela, candela), creed (lat. credo), etc. In addition, in the same period in English includes quite a lot of Latin words denoting everyday items, as well as those related to gardening and horticulture - chest (lat. cista, “box”), silk (lat. sericum, “silk”), coriander (lat. coriandrum) , parsley (lat. petroselinum), rose (lat. rosa), etc. Since the monasteries were also the centers of scientific and literary life in Britain, the vocabulary of the English language is replenished during this period with the corresponding vocabulary: school (lat. schola), verse (lat. . versus), circle (lat. circulus), as well as many scientific terms. Latin borrowings of the Middle English and Early New English periods are mainly words of scientific use and abstract nouns (formula, fraction, magnanimity, fatal, jovial, beneficial, vernacular). Borrowings of Latin term elements stand somewhat apart, since the process of their penetration into the English language is often artificial. We find a large number of examples of this, in particular, in medical terminology (oculist, osteotomy, etc.).
French borrowings, contrary to popular belief, appeared in English long before the Norman Conquest. The number of borrowed words that have survived to this day is small, but they testify to the existence of linguistic contacts between the British and the Normans, a Scandinavian people who lived from the 9th century. on the northern coast of France, in the duchy of Normandy and speaking the northern dialect of French. Among the surviving borrowings of this period are the words proud, tower, chancellor (we give the modern form of the words).
Beginning with the Norman Conquest in 1066 and up to the 16th century. French borrowings are pouring into the English language in a powerful stream. The English vocabulary is replenished with words from different thematic groups, reflecting the peculiarities of life in Britain at that time. So, to describe the country, the French words country, valley, river, border, etc. appear. A large group of words is associated with the naming of social relations. Native English words in this thematic group are few; they are king, queen, earl, lord, lady. The borrowed words are emperor, duke, duchess, baron, count, dame, damsel, etc., which convey new concepts that have entered the life of the British. The Normans became the new rulers of the country, and this was reflected in the language by the presence of French borrowings in the thematic group “Governance of the country”: sovereign, crown, administration, parliament, guardian, reign, etc. The LSG “Jurisprudence” adjoins it, significantly replenished with words Norman dialect: justice, crime, plaintiff, evidence, dungeon, etc., as well as military vocabulary: war, navy, peace, captain, admiral, victory, conquer, etc.
In the XII-XVI centuries. French borrowings come mainly along with religious concepts, and also in connection with the spread of French fashion, cuisine, crafts: chastity, innocence, devotion; barber, butcher, merchant, coin; garment, cotton, towel; fry, boil, mutton, cabbage.
In the 17th century the bulk of French borrowings are commercial and industrial terms: capital, commerce, insurance, bank, machine, investment, etc. In the 18th century. political terms of the French Revolution are added to them: aristocrat, democracy, despot, section, etc. Later, the flow of borrowings from French gradually dries up; English already includes single words of various thematic groups (garage, chauffer, development, fiancee, etc.).
Scandinavian borrowings also largely determined the mixed nature of the English vocabulary. This was largely facilitated by the direct coexistence of the British with the Danes on the territory of England during the period of Danish rule (X-XI centuries). Unlike Latin borrowings that came through written sources, Scandinavians appeared mainly as a result of oral communication. Only a few words of Scandinavian origin can be found in Old English written monuments. Only towards the end of the XII century. with the advent of written sources reflecting dialectal forms, there is evidence of earlier oral borrowings from the Scandinavian languages. The belonging of both English and Scandinavian languages to the same Germanic group allowed those who spoke them to at least understand each other, and in this process there was a strong mutual influence of languages. Borrowed mainly nouns, verbs and adjectives. Their division into thematic groups is difficult due to the very large variety; the semantics of most words is of a general nature: husband, fellow, drag, bag, snare, leg, calf, skin, skirt; cast, take, guess; ill, wrong, low and many other words. IN modern times borrowings from the Scandinavian languages are rare; an example is the Swedish word ombudsman - a person appointed by an institution (such as a government or a university) to receive a report on complaints made by ordinary people against the services of that institution.
Borrowings from other languages are very diverse. You can read more about them in the classic work by N. N. Amosova "Etymological foundations of the vocabulary of modern English", as well as in numerous articles on this topic in linguistic journals. We give here just a few examples.
Trade and industrial relations between England and Holland led to the appearance in English of a large number of Dutch terms from the field of shipbuilding and navigation (bowsprit, buoy, cruise, dock, reef, yacht) and weaving (rock - spinning wheel, spool - bobbin, stripe - flap) . Popularity in Europe XVI-XVII centuries. Dutch art was reflected in the borrowing of the terms of art history (easel, etch, landscape); the Dutch colonization of South Africa brought vocabulary related to the ethno- and geographical features of this country (bushman, kraal, veldt).
Borrowings from Romance languages (Spanish, Italian, Portuguese) also reflect the history of relations between these countries and Britain.
A large number of Italian words from the field of culture and art have penetrated into the English language since the 16th century. These are musical terms (adagio, allegro, basso, opera, trio, sonata), vocabulary related to literature and fine arts (cameo, fresco, studio, intaglio; canto, stanza). A number of words are introduced into English through the description of Italy by British travelers (volcano, lava, casino, gondola, cicerone). Some words denoting political and commercial concepts (fascism, bank, traffic) were borrowed. Recently, Italian borrowings have been recorded mainly in American English, which is easily explained by the ethnic composition of the United States. Examples of such late borrowings are the words pasta, paparazzi, mafia.
Spanish borrowings are especially numerous in the 16th-17th centuries, when, on the one hand, England and Spain dispute each other's primacy in the foreign policy arena, develop the territories of the recently discovered America, and, on the other hand, Spanish literature is in its prime, introducing the rest of European Spanish realities. Spanish borrowings include armada, banana, barbecue, canyon, cargo, chocolate, cigar, cocoa, hurricane, potato, ranch.
English also borrows some Portuguese words, but their number is small, and most of them, in turn, were borrowed into Portuguese from other languages, in particular, the languages of India, Indochina, and Africa. Portuguese borrowings include the words cobra, Madeira, tank, veranda, mandarin, banana.
Speaking about Russian borrowings, it should be remembered that they can be divided into three groups - the so-called early Russicisms, Sovietisms and later borrowings that entered the English language from the late 80s. 20th century Early Russicisms for the most part reflect the specific features of nature, material culture, and the state structure of Russia (altyn, boyar, borzoi, samovar, vodka, nihilist, tundra, taiga). Russian borrowings-Sovietisms are mainly associated with the realities of the Soviet political system: Komsomol, artel, Soviets. Along with them, words related to space exploration also entered the English language: sputnik, cosmonaut. Russian borrowings that appeared in English at the end of the 20th century also reflect socio-political changes in the life of Russia (perestroika, glasnost).
Classifications according to the degree of assimilation of borrowings
Coming into the recipient language, the word is assimilated in a new system in different ways. First of all, let's take a look at what happens to the form of the borrowed word. In some cases, it can be very easy to recognize a “stranger” by graphics and / or phonetics that are not typical for the English language. The word retains its material shell, while its morphological composition is also partially reworked. If at the same time the semantics of the prototype is also preserved in the word, then it is classified as a foreign word and refers to full borrowings (domino, protege, tete-a-tete). Also, words partially processed in phonetic and grammatical terms can be attributed to full borrowings. They are clearly felt as borrowed, but subject to the pronunciation and grammatical norms of the English language (reason, culture, exhibition).
With the further existence of borrowing in the language, it enters into different compatibility with other words, which often leads to a change in its semantics compared to the prototype. So, the Latin word caseus (cheese), being borrowed into English in this sense, later acquired the figurative, terminological meaning of “reel”. The Old French verb alouer, "to rent," was transformed into the modern English allow, "to allow." Typical examples of such borrowings are the English canister (from the Latin canistrum - "wicker basket"), coffin (from the Old French coffin - "casket"), as well as travel (from the French travailler - "to work"). Borrowings of this type are called relative and make up the majority in the English vocabulary, which is easily explained by the influence of the system of the receiving language on the elements newly included in it.
Morphemic borrowings are especially distinguished, which are words created from foreign morphemes within the English language. These include many terms such as anion, cation (from the Greek ana - "up", cata - "down" and ion - "going"); telephone, phonograph, teletype. The above classification is based mainly on the formal features of borrowed words. The distribution of types of borrowings according to the degree of assimilation of the semantics of words looks somewhat different.
Here, first of all, the so-called barbarisms, or words of local color, stand out. They are used in the recipient language only in connection with the specifics of the area from which they are borrowed. As a rule, these are complete borrowings in form, i.e., preserving the form of the prototype. Examples of barbarisms are ciao (Italian “hello”), rajah (from Hindi, “ruler”, “prince”), wigwam (from the Indian language, “hut”), etc. The scope of such words is quite narrow and the degree of assimilation is very small.
The next group is words that have been partially assimilated, but limited by the scope. First of all, these are terms and bookish words, in particular the so-called poetisms (etymon, homonym, lexical; pensive, oration, gregarious, matron). H. H. Amosova calls them specialized borrowings. Partially assimilated words may retain the formal features of the prototype, for example, some grammatical forms (genius - genii, geniuses), pronunciation variants (garage-), graphic originality (ballet, queue). The boundaries of this group are blurred, the types intersect.
The least recognizable group of borrowings, and therefore most consistent with the standards of the English language, are completely assimilated words. Once in the English language from different sources, over time and under the influence of the recipient language system, they have changed phonetically, grammatically and semantically so much that native speakers recognize them as original. Completely assimilated words form the core of the vocabulary along with native ones. Examples of this type are the Scandinavian verb take, the Latin wall, the French table, and many others. Words that are fully assimilated by the English language, H. H. Amosova proposes to call native.
Speaking about the borrowing of foreign language elements, one should pay attention to the structural levels of the language at which borrowings occur, i.e. it is transferred from one language to another - phonemes, morphemes, words and other elements.
According to V.M. Aristova, the borrowing of phonemes and morphemes should not be equated, for example, with the borrowing of words, since units or elements of different language levels behave differently when borrowed. Therefore, the linguist proposes to distinguish between primary elements that are able to independently transfer from one language to another, carry basic speech information and are endowed with relative independence, and secondary elements that are not capable of independent transition to another language.
Primary elements include lexical, semantic, syntactic and stylistic elements, while secondary elements include phonetic, phonological and morphological elements.
The famous linguist L.P. Krysin believes that elements that pass from one language to another can be units of different levels of the structure of the language - phonology, morphology, syntax, vocabulary, semantics. At the same time, the borrowing of words is a typical case of borrowing; borrowing of phonemes is a rare case, which depends on the degree of contact between the two languages; borrowing of morphemes occurs mainly in the composition of a word, the selection of morphemes is carried out on the basis of a verbal series, which includes words with a common lexical meaning, which are characterized by the repetition of a structural element (for example, businessman, bartender, athlete), syntactic or structural-syntactic borrowing occurs when the construction of phrases in speech is influenced by foreign syntactic constructions; semantic borrowing is the appearance in the word of the meaning "under pressure" of a foreign language sample.
As for the classification of borrowings according to the scope of their application in human activity, here we can distinguish two main groups of vocabulary that are enriched in this way - general colloquial and professional vocabulary (terminology).
The most important in the modern theory of borrowing is the classification of borrowings based on the nature of the borrowed material. Traditionally, it is customary to distinguish two main types of borrowing - direct borrowing and tracing. With direct borrowing, both the material form (sound and graphic) and the meanings of the prototype word are taken from a foreign language, and when tracing, only the meanings or semantic structure of a foreign language lexical unit are taken.
Among direct or material borrowings (from D.S. Lotte - original borrowings), the following subspecies can be distinguished:
) lexical borrowings, in which the material form of the word and its content are borrowed, for example: receiver - "reservoir for the accumulation of gases or vapors" (English receiver);
) borrowing the material form of the word, i.e. borrowing only a foreign form of a word in oral (phonetic borrowing) or written (graphic borrowing) form and filling this form with new content, for example: jam - thick jam (English jam);
) morphemic borrowing, which is the borrowing of root and derivational morphemes to form new words, for example: tele-(gr.) + -type (eng.).
When tracing (from D.S. Lotte - translated borrowings), not
the material form of a lexical unit, but only its meaning or structure. The following subspecies can be distinguished here:
) word-formation tracing, in which only the structure of a foreign language lexical unit is borrowed, on the basis of which a word is formed from the corresponding elements of the recipient language, for example: skyscraper (English skyscraper),
) semantic (semantic) tracing, in which the national word has a meaning that was absent from the corresponding foreign word,
) phraseological tracing, in which the translation "according to words" of foreign set phrases is carried out, for example, to make progress - to make progress (to be successful).
In addition to the above two main types of borrowing and their subspecies, a third type can be distinguished, which is called mixed borrowing. This includes cases where one part of the word can be borrowed, and the other part can be translated or one that already exists in the receptor language.
Among the mixed loans are:
semi-tracing, when one part of the word is borrowed materially, and the other is traced, for example, TV + video,
semi-borrowing, when one part of the word is borrowed, and the second exists in the language, for example, installation + nickname, counter + nut.
Since our thesis work will consider ways to translate borrowings from English into Russian, we consider it appropriate to consider the classification of borrowings that are presented directly in Russian. In the future, this can help in a qualitative analysis of the ways of translating borrowed lexemes from English into Russian.
Consider borrowings in Russian from a stylistic point of view.
A stylistic assessment of the use of borrowed words in various texts should take into account all the features of the vocabulary of foreign sources: the degree of mastering it by the Russian language, stylistic fixation, the absence of corresponding Russian names or, on the contrary, the possibility of a synonymous replacement of a foreign word, the time of its appearance in the language, the frequency of use in speech and etc. According to these criteria, a classification of borrowed words according to the degree of their development by the Russian language is proposed for consideration. At the same time, the selected lexical layers will have significant differences in the stylistic sense. Such a grouping of borrowed words in a stylistic sense is set by a practical goal - to determine recommendations for the use of such borrowings in speech.
The modern Russian language has in its arsenal an unlimited number of borrowings that go back to foreign sources. these borrowings can be divided into several groups according to the degree of their development by the Russian language.
Words that have lost any signs of non-Russian origin (bread, mug, umbrella, shop, cat, horse, dog, sail, icon, cutlet, potato, saucepan, plate).
Such words do not stand out against the background of Russian vocabulary either phonetically, or morphologically, or stylistically - "foreign language" does not have any effect on their use in speech.
Words that retain some external signs of a foreign language origin: consonances not characteristic of the Russian language (decollete, phoneme, timbre, tempo); non-Russian suffixes (boyfriend, activist, correspondent, lecturer); non-Russian prefixes (transliteration, antioxidant); some of these words are not inflected (avenue, Hindi, coffee, subway). This group includes words that, denoting phenomena that have firmly entered our lives, are widely used in speech as the only names for common objects, concepts. Such borrowed words stylistically merged with native Russian vocabulary.
Borrowed vocabulary contains a significant part of common words from the field of science, politics, culture, art, known not only in Russian, but also in other European languages, the so-called Europeanisms or internationalisms, for example: file, interface, printer, consultation, supermarket, presentation.
Borrowed words that penetrated into the Russian language under the influence of salon-noble jargon (amorous - "love", rendezvous - "date", pleisir - "pleasure", sentiment - "sensitivity"). The words of this group have largely become archaic, as they have found more commonly used synonyms in Russian speech.
Exoticisms are borrowed words that characterize the specific national characteristics of the life of different peoples and are used when describing non-Russian reality, for example: Italian borrowings - gondola, tarantella, Spanish - mantilla, castanets, hidalgo, etc. Along with other foreign language lexical elements, exoticisms stand out as words that are not fully lexically mastered by the Russian language.
Foreign-language inclusions in Russian vocabulary (sorry, okay, child prodigy), which often retain non-Russian spelling (game over (English) - the game is over, “Kamo come”, “quo vadis” (lat.) - Where are you going ?, per aspera ad astra (lat.) - through thorns to the stars. Foreign inclusions usually have lexical equivalents in the Russian vocabulary, but stylistically they differ from them and are fixed in one or another sphere of communication as special names or as an expressive means that gives speech a special expression. foreign inclusions is their distribution not only in Russian, but also in other European languages.
Barbarisms are foreign words or expressions that are not fully assimilated into the Russian language and are perceived as foreign words in violation of the generally accepted language norm. For example: comme il faut, pager, hacker. Barbarisms can only conditionally be attributed to borrowed vocabulary, which has a limited scope of use; in fact, they remain outside the Russian vocabulary.
So, dividing the borrowed vocabulary into several groups, we can trace the gradual strengthening of the “foreign” coloring in them, which must certainly be taken into account in the stylistic assessment of its use in speech. Borrowed words, which have already become widespread and fixed in the structure of interstyle vocabulary, are not of particular interest from the point of view of stylistics. Borrowed words and expressions that have a limited scope of use are subjected to stylistic assessment. Nevertheless, the features of this type of vocabulary and its functioning must certainly be taken into account by specialists who work in the field of linguistics.
1.3 Sources of loanwords in English
The English language is traditionally open to borrowings from a variety of languages.
English adopted a large number of borrowings from the Scandinavian languages in the early Middle Ages (including such basic words as skin "skin", ill "sick" and even she "she"). The most massive stream of borrowings is medieval, after the Norman Conquest, from Old French; as a result, almost half of the English vocabulary has Romance roots. In modern times, a large number of learned Latinisms and new borrowings from continental languages entered the language.
Consider Celtic borrowings. Borrowings from the Celtic languages in English are not numerous, and in most cases refer to dialect vocabulary or to the vocabulary of the lower strata of the population. Of interest is the counting system of British sheep breeders, derived from the numerals of the extinct Cumbrian language. The syntactic tracing paper from the Celtic languages is, in its origin, the system of Continuous tenses, which is absent in other Germanic languages.
The first layer of Latin borrowings are words that got into English during trade contacts on the continent, for example: wine “wine”, pear “pear”, “pepper” pepper.
The second layer of Latin borrowings are words borrowed during Christianization: mass "mass", school "school", priest "priest", devil "devil" and others.
A significant number of Latin words entered the English language during the period of the 11th-13th centuries, during the period of the Normans. However, these words, in their majority, have already undergone, to a greater or lesser extent, phonetic, grammatical and semantic changes in the Norman dialect of French, which borrowed these words from Latin.
The largest number of words borrowed by English from Latin are the so-called book borrowings. These are words that have entered the language not as a result of direct, live communication between peoples, but through written documents, books, and so on. Book borrowings are qualitatively different from other types of borrowings. First of all, they are less subject to any kind of changes, especially semantic ones. It is logical to explain this by the fact that book borrowings, for a long period of time, are limited by the scope of their use - the literary form of a given language. Further, these borrowings are usually abstract, abstract or terminological in nature.
Most of the Latin book borrowings in English fall on the period of the 16th, as well as the 15th-16th centuries, that is, the Renaissance in England. There are over a thousand Latin words in the works of Wycliffe, Langland, and Chaucer that have not been previously attested in English. In the Renaissance, words from the field of medicine, literature, theology, technical terms and so on appear. The list of these words cannot be given within short chapter. To do this, you need to create a special dictionary.
Most of these borrowings can be identified by morphological features, for example, verbs that have the suffix -ate- in the infinitive, formed from the past participle of Latin verbs of the I conjugation, as separate, translate, meditate, exaggerate, congratulate; verbs with the suffix -ute- in the infinitive, obtained from the stem of the past participle of the group of Latin verbs of III conjugation, like prosecute, execute; adjectives formed from Latin present participles with stems in -ant- and -ent-, e.g. evident, transparent, patient, triumphant, apparent, obedient.
The following centuries - XVII, XVIII - witnessed book borrowings from the Latin language. In most cases, these are the so-called "learned words", often retaining the morphological features of Latin words, such as inertia, sanatorium, genus, radius, curriculum, datum, vacuum.
Finally, in modern English there are also such borrowings that have completely preserved their Latin appearance, that is, they have not undergone and are not currently undergoing any linguistic assimilation. These words and expressions are used in the language as a kind of quotation from the Latin language. The scope of their use is very limited: they are usually used in the styles of scientific prose, in business documents, in an elevated oratorical style of speech. These borrowings include such expressions as: alma mater, bona fide, ex officio, conditio sine qua non, and so on.
As noted in the previous chapter, in the process of borrowing words from one language to another, there are cases when the same word is borrowed twice. This is possible only in cases of long-term historical and cultural ties between peoples whose languages come into contact. Such is the history of the influence of Latin on English. Many Latin words appeared in English twice: once from French, another time from Latin itself. The second borrowing is usually removed from the first by a significant period of time necessary for the newly borrowed word to be considered as a new one. Etymological Franco-Latin doublets are obtained.
Some word-forming elements - prefixes and suffixes - should also be attributed to the number of Latin borrowings of a bookish nature. These derivational morphemes were not borrowed from Latin as independent lexical units; they were borrowed as part of whole words and only later comprehended as word-forming morphemes. However, in the linguistic literature they are called borrowed affixes.
Thus, the Latin language had a significant impact on the enrichment of the English language with new words. This is largely due to the fact that the Norman conquest of England, which brought with it a huge number of French words, set the stage for a relatively free influx of Latin words due to etymological relationship. In historical lexicology, it is sometimes difficult to determine whether a particular word has entered the English language from French or Latin.
Scandinavian borrowings also take place in the vocabulary of the English language. They came from Danish as a result of the Scandinavian conquest (from about 870). This group of borrowings is not very numerous, but it includes very frequent words. Here are some examples:
they, them instead of hie, hem (hem is preserved in colloquial expressions like I met "em yesterday);
take, cut, get, instead of which English words would give in modern language *nim, *snide, *werth;
Are, fellow, gear, ill, happen, happy, husband, kick, law, leg, low, odd, rove, rug, scale, scalp, skill, skin, skip, skull, tight, ugly , wrong, etc.
nay, fro, skirt, dike, sky, screech, for which the English parallels nay, from, shirt, ditch, welkin, shriek have been preserved;
suffixes in toponymy: -by, -beck, -thorp(e), -fell, -toft, -thwaite from the Scandinavian words byr "village", bekkr "stream", thorp "village", fjall "mountain", topt "estate ", thveit "fenced area" and others; example names: Rugby, Welbeck, Scunthorpe, Micklefell, Lovestoft, Applethwaite;
Flock, mug, and a few others came through Anglo-Norman;
nag, ombudsman, ski, skive, slalom, slam - words reflecting new realities for the British came from modern Scandinavian languages in the 19th-20th centuries.
Scandinavian borrowings are difficult to distinguish from proper English words, since Danish and Old English were closely related languages. A characteristic difference is that in Danish words /k/, /g/, /sk/ were preserved, while in English they turned into hissing: /k/ and /g/ - under certain conditions, /sk/ - always.
French borrowings are the most numerous in English.
In 1066, England was conquered by the Normans. Normandy was a French duchy; it acquired its name after the French king Charles the Simple, being unable to cope with the Vikings, gave them this territory under the agreement of 912. By 1066, the Vikings had long adopted the French language and assimilated into the local population. They came to England as carriers of the French language (Norman dialect), French culture and the French feudal system. After the Norman Conquest, power was completely in the hands of the Normans; Duke William the Conqueror also deposed the English priests and replaced them with Norman ones. The indigenous population continued to speak English, but from the Norman dialect Anglo-Norman was formed, which became the state language and existed until the end of the 14th century. During this time, English learned a huge number of French words. Of the 80,000 most common words in the English language, approximately 22,500 are French borrowings (of all periods of history).
Especially clearly the borrowings reflect the Norman influence in the field of public administration, in military affairs, in the organization of the church and in urban life:
court, servant, guard, prince, vassal, government, serf, village (yard, servant, guard, prince, vassal, government, serf, village);
army, battle, banner, victory (army, battle, banner, victory);
religion, chapel, prayer, to confess (religion, chapel, prayer, confess);
City, merchant (city, merchant).
Craftsmen who lived in the countryside retained English names, while urban ones began to be called French words: butcher "butcher", mason "mason", tailor "tailor". Animals are called English words, but their meat is French: beef "beef", mutton "mutton", pork "pork", veal "veal".
More than half of the words in the English language are of French origin as a result of the Norman Conquest (1066). It is curious that all the names of animals are originally English words, and the meat of these animals is French borrowings, for example: cow-beef (cow - beef), pig-pork (pig - pork), deer - venison (deer - venison), sheep - mutton (lamb sheep).
French borrowings in English are used, as a rule, to achieve greater formality, for example: commence instead of begin, to be content instead of to be glad.
The above words (you can add common ones to them, such as: composition, continue, frequency, etc.), being French borrowings, are pronounced in English. In this case, we are interested in those expressions that entered the English language without any changes, for example: appetit! (bon apeti ) - Bon appetit! voyage! (bon voyage) - Bon voyage! blanche (carte blanche) - carte blanche, freedom of action. a-tete (tete-a-tete) - tete-a-tete, alone. a-Vis (vis-a-vis) - sitting opposite, interlocutor, face to face. (summary) - a short biography in the "resume" format. - Respondez s il vous plait (responde sil vu plait) - please answer, answer (in business correspondence).
The translator, when encountering words and phrases of foreign origin in the English text, should refer to the English-English (explanatory) dictionary, where their explanation is given, or to the corresponding bilingual dictionary, for example: krieg (German) - lightning war vita (Italian) - sweet life vista (Spanish) - good view.
A large number of borrowings are found in American English due to the fact that the United States, as you know, is not in vain called the melting pot of nations.
Many place names in the United States are written and pronounced in Spanish, such as the cities of San Francisco, San Diego, La Jolla [la hoya], San Antonio, Sacramento, Rio Grande River, Rio Vista Street, etc. As we already know, these names are transmitted in Russian by sound reproduction, i.e., transcription, for example: Rio Vista street (and not “river view”).
A large number of Spanish words and expressions are used in the southwestern United States thanks to the cowboys who mastered these lands in the middle of the 19th century. Americans learned them from the inhabitants of Mexico: rodeo, ranch (Spanish - rancho), etc.
As a result of French colonization, such names appeared as the river Cache la Poudre (cash la powder) (“hide gunpowder”) in the state of Colorado, the city of Des Moines (Des Moines), the capital of Iowa (although in this case the pronunciation of the name of the city was not preserved entirely in French).
Words denoting Italian cuisine have also entered the English language (with Italian spelling and pronunciation), for example: lasagna (lasagne) ravioli (ravioli), pasta (pasta), spaghetti (spaghetti). The same can be said about the names of European dishes that appeared in English from the Yiddish language, for example, latkes (latkes) - potato pancakes, blintzes (blintses) - pancakes, gefilte fish (gefilte fish) - stuffed fish.
The list of borrowings in English could be continued.
The English language (both written and spoken) uses a large number of words, phrases and abbreviations from the Latin language.
Some Latinisms have entered the common vocabulary, for example: 5AM - at 5 o'clock in the morning or vice-versa - vice versa. Basically, Latin expressions are characteristic of the written form of the academic, official style. Therefore, they should be known to those who read English non-fiction or use English for academic purposes in writing.
Examples of Latinisms: hoc - for this case fide - frankly, sincerely - approximately laude - with honors. (et cetera) - and so on alia - among others
Thus, we can note that borrowed vocabulary occupies a significant place in the lexical system of any language, in particular English. In order to study the features of its functioning within a particular language system, it is advisable to pay considerable attention to the specifics of the arrival of this vocabulary in the language and the study of the conditions that led to the arrival of these borrowings.
It should be noted that borrowings in different languages affect the enrichment of the vocabulary in different ways. In some languages, they did not have such an impact that could significantly affect the vocabulary of the language. In other languages, borrowing in different historical epochs had such a significant impact on the vocabulary of the language that even function words, such as pronouns, prepositions, borrowed from other languages, replaced the original function words. Because a living language is a constantly evolving phenomenon. Something new comes, the unnecessary, superfluous disappears, and for scientists working in the field of lexicology, there are still many questions that need to be resolved.
CHAPTER 2. ANALYSIS OF BORROWING TRANSFER METHODS
.1 Ways to translate borrowings
First of all, we note that in general terms, we can outline two ways of translation, which the translator follows: Direct or literal translation and indirect (indirect) translation.
Indeed, there may be a case where a message in the source language translates perfectly into a message in the target language, because it is based either on parallel categories (structural parallelism) or on parallel concepts (metalinguistic parallelism). But it may also happen that the translator finds a “gap” in the target language that needs to be filled by equivalent means in order to ensure that the overall impression of the two messages is the same. It may also happen that, due to structural or metalinguistic differences, some stylistic effects cannot be conveyed in the target language without changing the order of elements or even lexical units to some extent. It is clear that in the second case it is necessary to resort to more sophisticated methods, which at first glance may cause surprise, but the course of which can be traced in order to strictly control the achievement of equivalence.
The first way of translation: borrowing.
by the most in a simple way translation is a borrowing that allows you to fill in a gap, usually of a metalinguistic nature (new technique, unknown concepts). Borrowing would not even be such a method of translation that we may be interested in if the translator did not sometimes need it in order to create a stylistic effect. For example, to bring the so-called local flavor, you can use foreign terms and talk about "versts" and "poods" in Russia, and "dollars" and "party" in America, about "tequila" and "tortilla" in Mexico, etc. e. A phrase such as The coroner spoke is better translated by the borrowing method Le coroner prit la parole (I took the word coroner) than to look for a more or less equivalent among the titles of French judicial officials.
There are also old borrowings that, in essence, are no longer such for us, because they appear in the lexical composition of our language and have already become familiar: alcool, redingote, paquetbot, acajou, etc. The translator is primarily interested in new borrowings and even borrowings of an individual character. It should be noted that borrowings often enter the language through translation, among them are semantic borrowings, or "false friends of the translator", which should be especially feared.
The problem of local color, solved with the help of borrowings, affects primarily the sphere of style and, consequently, the message itself.
The main ways of borrowing vocabulary are transcription, transliteration and tracing.
Transcription (phonetic method) is such a borrowing of a dictionary unit, in which its sound form is preserved (sometimes somewhat modified in accordance with the phonetic features of the language into which the word is borrowed). In this way, the words football (football), trailer (trailer), jeans (jeans), etc. are borrowed from English. In English, they are borrowed from the French regime, ballet, bouquet, etc.
Transliteration is a method of borrowing in which the spelling of a foreign word is borrowed: the letters of the borrowed word are replaced by the letters of the native language. When transliterating, the word is read according to the rules of reading the native language. By the method of transliteration from English into Russian, the words cruise (English cruise), motel (English motel), club (English club) are borrowed.
Many proper names are also transliterated when borrowing from English: Washington (Eng. Washington), Texas (Eng. Texas), London (Eng. London). There are many words of Greek, Latin and French origin in English, which have retained their graphic features, although they are read according to the rules of the English language.
Tracing, transcription and transliteration as methods of borrowing should be distinguished from the methods of translation of the same name. Without differing in their mechanism, they differ in their final results: when translating, the dictionary does not grow, while when borrowing, new dictionary units appear in the box.
Since the process of assimilation of foreign language elements begins from the moment they are introduced into the language by translators, it is appropriate to say a few words about the technique of translating specifically foreign names. When translating words and expressions with an incomprehensible associative meaning, as well as when translating the names of realities, transcription can be used, less often transliteration, tracing and explanatory translation (transferring the meaning of a foreign word or phrase by means of the native language without preserving the motivation and form). For example, the translation of the word the Speaker by the phrase chairman of the House of Commons, the word backbenchers by the phrase "ordinary members English Parliament" and so on. In an explanatory translation, a footnote may be transcribed with the word being translated, in this case "speaker" and "backbangers". When tracing, transcription and transliteration, it is sometimes necessary to resort to comments.
The second way of translation: tracing.
Tracing is a borrowing of a special kind: we borrow one or another syntagma from a foreign language and literally translate the elements that make it up. In this way, we get either a calque of the expression, and we use the syntactic structures of the target language, introducing new expressive elements into it, for example, Compliments de la Saison (literally: "seasonal greetings"), or a calque of the structure, and we introduce new constructions into the language, for example, Science-fiction (lit. "science fiction").
As with borrowings, there are old stable calques that can only be mentioned in passing, since they, like borrowings, can undergo semantic evolution, becoming "false friends". More interesting for the translator are new tracing papers, with the help of which he avoids borrowing, filling in the gaps (cf .: French économiquement faible - economically weak, tracing paper from German). In such cases, apparently, it is better to resort to word formation based on the Greek-Latin fund or use hypostasis (the transition from one part of speech to another by conversion). In this way it would be possible to avoid such tortured cripples as: Thérapie occupationelle (Occupational Therapy); "Banque puor le Commerce et le Développement", le quatre Grands, le Premier français, and others like them, which may, in the opinion of some translators, be the most obvious example of the extreme poverty of thought.
The third way of translation: literal translation
Literal translation, or word-for-word translation, means a transition from the source language to the target language, which leads to the creation of a correct and idiomatic text, while the translator only monitors compliance with the mandatory norms of the language, for example: I left my spectacles on the table downstairs - I left my glasses on the table below; Where are you? - Where are you?; This train arrives at Union Station at ten - This train arrives at Central Station at 10 o'clock.
In principle, a literal translation is the only reversible and complete solution to the problem. There are many examples of this in translations from languages belonging to the same family (French-Italian), and especially between languages belonging to the same cultural orbit. If there are some cases of literal translation from German into English, it is because there are metalinguistic concepts that can also reflect the facts of coexistence, periods of bilingualism and conscious or unconscious imitation, which is associated with political or intellectual prestige. This can also be explained by the peculiar convergence of thoughts, and sometimes structures, that can be observed among the languages of Europe (cf., for example, the formation of the definite article, the similarity of the concepts of culture and civilization, etc.).
The translator should apply a special approach to the translation of international vocabulary, which, as noted earlier, occupies a special place among borrowings.
The difficulties of translating international vocabulary lie in the fact that a translator, especially a beginner, often forgets about such a concept as "use of a word" (usage), and, being under the impression of a familiar graphic form of a word, allows literalisms in the translation and violates the norms of the native language ( target language), especially in the field of word compatibility. Meanwhile, "words associated and identified (due to similarity in terms of expression) in two languages, in terms of content or use, do not fully correspond or even completely do not correspond to each other. That is why words of this type were called faux amis du traducteur in French linguistics - "false friends of the translator".
In some cases, the translator has the full right to transfer root value words literally, but only when the sense of language and experience tell him that the translation he proposes for this particular situation is precisely an adequate transfer of the thought of the original. Here are some examples: code point - code point, color correction - color correction, correlator - correlator.
At the same time, this provision (the admissibility of a literal translation of terms and terminological combinations in a number of individual rare cases) can also serve as a source of errors in translation. As the researcher of scientific and technical translation A. L. Pumpyansky notes, the main reasons leading to errors include:
) belief in the unambiguity of words and grammatical forms;
) mixing the graphic appearance of the word;
) erroneous use of analogy;
) translation of words with more specific meanings than they actually have;
) the inability to find the Russian meaning for the translation of English words and lexical and grammatical combinations;
) ignorance of the regularities of the presentation of English scientific and technical material and the method of its transmission into Russian.
Thus, we see that the first two causes of errors noted by A.L. Pumpyansky - these are errors as a result of ignorance of the features of international vocabulary.
The following possible discrepancies in the meanings of international and corresponding Russian words are noted in the literature.
The Russian word coincides with the English, but not in all meanings, but only in one or two. This group of international vocabulary includes a relatively large number of words, the translation of which presents significant difficulties.
The polysemantic word satellite, which has passed into the Russian language from English, is used mainly in only one sense: a satellite state, a puppet state. In English, the word satellite is realized in several meanings:
) satellite, satellite;
) artificial satellite;
) a member of the retinue, a member of the solemn cortege, an accompanying person;
) henchman, adherent;
) satellite state;
) satellite city;
) satellite (chromosomes).
In other cases, the situation is different: Russian word has a number of meanings and only one of them corresponds to English. This is usually observed when the word is borrowed from some third language: for example, the Russian word auditorium is wider in meaning than the English auditorium. In Russian, you can say the audience of readers; in English the word auditorium is not used in this sense, and the equivalents in English to convey this meaning are units such as the readership, the reading audience, the readers, or even the market (cf. the book has a good market).
Some similar words often have different basic meanings. Words in this category require special attention on the part of the translator, since they can easily be misleading and cause gross errors. So, activities is translated as activity, and not as activity; communal is mainly used in the meaning of "public" and very rarely - "communal"; aspirant - an applicant for something, but never a graduate student; direction - direction, not direction (cf. board of directors; management); magazine - a magazine, but, of course, not a store; obligation - an obligation, not a bond; sympathetic is sympathetic, while the first suggestive but incorrect option is sympathetic (cf. sympathetic strike is a solidarity strike, not a sympathy strike); typography - typography, not a printing house; fabric is a textile product, not a factory.
The transfer of words close in sound (or having a similar graphic form) from one language to another during translation is especially often observed in related languages, for example, in Russian and Ukrainian. “It seems to many,” writes O. Kundzich, “that when such a word is transferred from one language to another, it retains all its qualities, that these qualities are contained in the word itself, and do not arise in the relationship of this word with the entire system of this language. I I mean such qualities as a popular or bookish word, emotionality or terminology, positivity or negativity of meaning, poetry, solemnity, and so on - to the finest shades in their endless variations and their ratios.
2.2 Practical analysis of the translation of borrowings
borrowing vocabulary tracing translation
After analyzing the features of the translation of borrowed lexemes, we will consider the expediency of using one or another method of translation using the example of specific lexical units.
Consider the following borrowed lexemes: Microsoft, Windows, Apple, AOL, CD-ROM, MS-DOS, Yahoo, Rambler, Google, Yandex, Corel Draw, 3D Max, Total Commander, Internet Explorer.
In this case, there is a graphic reproduction of the borrowing without any changes in the original spelling. As you can see, this primarily concerns names - the names of corporations, search engines, operating systems and software products (often in the form of abbreviations and acronyms). Thus, the above borrowed lexical units in the Russian text of the translation will fully retain their graphic form.
The following series of borrowed lexemes is translated by the transcription method: computer - computer, printer - printer, display - display, file - file, overlay - overlay, plotter - plotter, pixel - pixel, setup - setup. At the same time, it should be noted that certain lexical units, such as, for example, display, file, setup in a specific contextual environment, can be translated using the national Russian correspondence as follows: display - screen, file - document, setup - setting. At the same time, the translation of the word file as "document" can also be considered as a translation of another borrowed equivalent or the international word "document".
Transliteration is often applied to the translation of terminological lexemes, which in turn are international lexemes. Examples are the following words: processor - processor, modem - modem, monitor - monitor.
As noted earlier, tracing also occupies a rather important place among the main ways of translating borrowed lexical units.
In this case, we are dealing with a word or expression, which is a translation in parts of a foreign word from the material of the native language. The following lexical units can serve as practical examples of translation with the tracing method: external command - an external command; digital signature - digital signature; peripheral controller - peripheral controller.
Of interest are cases of translation of cripples, in which one of the elements is transliterated, and the other element of the target language, which itself at one time or even until recently was a borrowing-neologism. For example: proxy server - proxy server; swapping manager - swapping manager, content provider - content provider.
Consider in practice also the translation of borrowings in a descriptive way.
Descriptive (explanatory, descriptive) translation is a method of transferring non-equivalent vocabulary, providing for the disclosure of the meaning of a borrowed unit using a detailed description (in phrases, phrases, etc.). For example: Digitizer - an encoder, subsystem or device that generates digital data for an input analog signal; A transponder is a telecommunications device that receives a signal in one form and transmits it in another form.
Speaking about the practical translation of borrowings, one cannot fail to mention the fact of the assimilation process that some borrowed lexical units go through.
After entering the language, the borrowing undergoes a process of assimilation - the adaptation of a word to a different language system, expressed in a change in pronunciation, spelling of a word, a change in its grammatical properties in accordance with the rules of the receiving language, and often in a change in semantics. Semantic changes in borrowed elements are the most interesting, since they can be quite significant, but not noticeable without deep etymological research.
We proceed from the fact that the assimilation of terminology is its adaptation in phonetic, grammatical, semantic and graphical terms to the system of the recipient language. The degree of assimilation can be different, but, as a rule, there are fully and partially assimilated terms. The degree of assimilation is determined by many factors, among which one of the most important is morphological, semantic or syntactic derivation, i.e. the formation of derivative words in the target language from the corresponding borrowings that are simple in morphological structure: to xerox - to copy.
Speaking about the assimilation of computer terms, for example, one should mention those terms that have become or are becoming part of computer slang - colloquial vocabulary, which is considered below the generally accepted standard: words that are not used in the standard language or have a special lexical-semantic content.
Let us consider below the translation of borrowed lexemes that function in the economic sphere on the example of individual sentences. key method, which our company uses to deliver some information about know-how to our customers, is colorful circulars. - The main way that our company uses to inform the public about the latest innovations is through colored brochures that are sent to homes.
The main attention in this proposal, in our opinion, should be paid to the borrowing-pseudo-internationalism circular, which refers to the legal and legal sphere of functioning. This borrowing is translated into Russian in a descriptive way "advertising brochures that are sent home." Transliteration as a method of translation is excluded in this case, since the Russian word "circular" is most of all associated with legal documents. Therefore, in this case, the only possible way of translation is descriptive (dicryptive). securities and insurance (more accurately, export money, using reinsurance), etc. - In fact, we are talking about the sphere of illegal financial services aimed at VAT refunds from the state budget, the transfer of capital into cash, the introduction of schemes for working with securities and insurance (more precisely, the withdrawal of funds abroad through reinsurance), etc.
First of all, in this example, you should pay attention to the borrowing of reinsurance. It refers to the financial and economic sphere of functioning. We have translated this borrowing into the Russian equivalent correspondence "reinsurance". It should be noted that the structure of the borrowed lexeme is completely preserved in Russian: the prefix re-, which in English indicates the repeated performance of some action, was transformed into the Russian prefix re-. Also, the form of the noun was preserved in the translation of this borrowing.
This sentence also contains the borrowed lexeme illegal, which refers to the legal sphere of functioning. This borrowed lexeme was translated by us by transcription as "illegal". The same borrowing can also be translated by the Russian counterpart “illegal”, but in order to preserve the pragmatic load of the English borrowing “illegal” in Russian, we decided to leave the borrowed morpheme in the translation.
You should also pay attention to borrowing accurately, which refers to the social sphere of functioning. This borrowing was translated by the Russian counterpart "more precisely". As for borrowing-internationalisms budget and capital, they relate to the financial and economic sphere of functioning and are translated into Russian by the method of transliteration as “budget” and “capital”. Particular attention should be paid to the borrowed lexeme capital, which could also be translated by the borrowed international synonym “assets” (from the English Assets), but in order to be as close as possible to the original text during translation, we decided to leave the original lexeme “capital” .
In our opinion, one should also consider the borrowed vocabulary that is present in the following sentence.
In the event of cancellation of the charter by the Charterer, for any reason, except as mentioned in Clause 3, after signing this Agreement, all advance payments made up to the date of cancellation will be retained by the owner, and the owner reserves the right to refund the said deposits only if he succeeds in letting the yacht to another Charterer for the same period and under the same conditions. - In the event of cancellation of the charter by the charterer after the signing of this contract for any reason other than those specified in paragraph 3, all advance payments made up to the date of cancellation remain with the owner and the owner reserves the right to return the said payments only in the event that if he can deliver the yacht to another charterer for the same period and under the same conditions.
The borrowed lexeme charter refers to the financial and economic sphere of functioning. This borrowing is translated into Russian by transliteration as "charter". A single-root borrowing in relation to the above word is the lexeme Charterer, which functions in the same area, but is translated into Russian by the following correspondence - “charterer”. The borrowed lexeme reason refers to the social sphere of functioning and its correspondence in Russian is not the word "reason", but "reason".
This sentence also contains the borrowed lexeme advance payments, which is purely business in nature and is translated by such a correspondence as “advance payments”. To translate this borrowed lexeme, transcription was also used, namely, to translate the borrowing advance. Let's move on to the next borrowing of date, which refers to the social sphere of functioning. In order to translate it into Russian, we used the transcription method and got the word "date".
Consider also borrowing reserve. It belongs to the social sphere of application. In this case, to translate this borrowing, we have selected the corresponding Russian equivalent of “saves”. The same lexeme could also be translated by the transcription method as “reserves”, but in this context and in the conditions of combining this borrowing with the word “right”, the latter option is unacceptable for us.
Borrowing period refers to the social sphere of functioning. It is translated into Russian by transliteration as "period". As for the borrowed lexeme deposits, it is mainly used in business discourse and in this case is translated as “payments”. The same word can also be transliterated as "deposits", but this equivalent is acceptable in the context of "bank deposits". In our case, we have completely different situational conditions, so transliteration, as a method of translation, does not suit us here. But the Russian analogue of "payment" fully reproduces the contextual meaning of borrowing deposits in this sentence.
In this example, there is another borrowing - conditions. It belongs to the social sphere of functioning. It should be noted that this word was translated by the Russian correspondence "conditions". In no case can this lexeme be translated as "condition".
consider the translation of another sentence in which borrowed tokens function. it also ensures effective performance monitoring which further encourages the managers to use the company's resources and capabilities in a more efficient manner. ; such leadership also provides effective control over the work of the company, which further encourages managers to make more efficient use of the company's resources and capabilities.
Borrowing corporate supervision refers to the financial and economic sphere of functioning. It can be considered as a borrowing, which in Russian completely retains its structure: adjective + noun - "corporate management".
Terminological borrowing Management Board operates in the financial and economic sphere. Prior to the translation of this borrowing, we also applied the translation technique of omission and in the Russian translation we received simply “The Board”. The borrowed lexeme monitoring, which is mainly used in the scientific and technical sphere of functioning, we translated by means of a synonymous replacement, choosing another borrowing - “control”. The same borrowing can be translated using transliteration, and, in our opinion, a synonymous translation is more suitable for this context.
Borrowing resources, which refers to the social sphere of functioning, we translated as "resources" using the transcription method.
Let's analyze one more proposal. investors also participate in the operation of the company: two Leipzig energy companies are shareholders of the company, the value of their shares increased by 5 per cent in 2003. , whose value increased by 5% in 2003, are in the hands of two energy companies in Leipzig.
In this sentence there is a borrowing by foreign investors, which exists in the form of a phrase and refers to the financial and economic sphere of functioning. When translating this borrowing by the method of transcription (tracing), the grammatical structure of this borrowing was preserved: adjective + noun in the plural - "foreign investors".
The next borrowed lexeme in this sentence is operation. If we talk about the scope of its functioning, it is social sphere. It is in this example that the borrowing operation is translated by the Russian counterpart "activity". If this borrowing were in a different context, then it could be translated from English into Russian by transcription as an “operation”, but in this case such a translation is impossible.
As we can see from the examples discussed above, the use of one or another translation method is mainly determined by the contextual environment of the borrowed lexeme and varies depending on the text in which it is used. Therefore, a translator who deals with borrowed vocabulary should fully analyze the context of a particular sentence, text in order to choose the most accurate and correct option translation and at the same time preserve the pragmatic load laid down by the author of the source text.
CONCLUSION
In the process of writing this thesis, we carefully analyzed the borrowed vocabulary from the point of view of its concept and scope of functioning. We also considered various classifications of borrowed vocabulary proposed by specialists at various stages of linguistic studies. A significant place in our work is the consideration of the sources of borrowings in the English language from a chronological point of view.
In the practical part, we analyzed the ways of translating borrowings from English into Russian. At the same time, in practice, using the example of specific sentences, we proved the expediency of using one or another method of translation.
Thus, completing our study, we have come to the following conclusions.
Borrowing as a process is multifaceted; it has certain causes, types and results. The reasons for borrowing lie both within a particular language system and outside it. The need for borrowing a foreign language element that arises within the language is explained by the inaccuracy of the existing name or its absence due to the novelty of the designated object for the culture using this language. External reasons for the appearance of borrowings arise as a result of contacts between people who speak different languages. Borrowed words facilitate communication, and also often carry a socio-psychological burden in the form of connotations that are absent in the correspondences of the receiving language.
The modern vocabulary of the English language has changed and supplemented over many centuries and now has a large number of words in its stock, which also had an ambiguous influence on the formation of its vocabulary.
The Latin language, from which many borrowings came, mainly played an intermediary role.
We can confidently conclude that the English language, taking words from other foreign languages, has not violated its specificity. On the contrary, he enriched himself with the best linguistic elements that he could absorb in all of history.
We also came to the conclusion that the main means of translating borrowings is transcription, transliteration, transcription, tracing, synonymous replacement.
Borrowing as an element of the language also has its own specifics: such elements exist at different levels of the language, but not in equal quantities. The largest number of them is at the level of words, the smallest - at the level of stable phrases. Despite the long and deep process of assimilation that a borrowing undergoes in the receiving language, it is not too difficult to establish the foreign language of an element with knowledge of the criteria for its determination for a particular language.
All translation methods are applicable for transferring borrowed elements in one language into another language. Their use is determined by the translator's opinion regarding the appropriateness of one or another method and variant of translation in a particular situation, since several options are often possible. Relevance criteria are: the purpose of the text, and depending on it - the accuracy of information transfer or its expressiveness; the level of expected preparation of the reader in this area; text style.
Upon completion of writing our thesis, we concluded that borrowed lexemes require great attention in translation in order to avoid unpredictable errors. Therefore, a careful analysis of the grammatical and contextual factors of each individual sentence should be the first task of the translator who deals with the translation of borrowed vocabulary.
We see the prospect of further research on this topic in the possibility of using its results in the analysis of borrowed vocabulary and methods of its translation in a certain area of functioning - economic, social, political.
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FRENCH BORROWINGS IN ENGLISH
Introduction.
The topic of this work relates to the field of lexicology. As you know, vocabulary is the dynamic side of the language in any period of time. It represents the smallest degree of abstraction in the language, since the word is always subject-oriented; it can be borrowed, formed, formed anew, or from elements available in the language. In my work, I consider borrowing as one of the main ways of word formation in the English language.
The work is built in accordance with the goals that I set for myself:
consider the most important sources and ways of penetration of borrowings into the English language. determine their role and place in the vocabulary of the English language. consider the features of borrowing words based on etymological analysis.The tasks of this work also include learning to determine the origins of forms and phenomena reflected in any modern word. To do this, I examined in detail the history of Britain, the history of the language, and also analyzed the words. I also made an attempt to systematize and classify borrowings, based on the research of specialists in the field of linguistics.
The development of language is characterized by processes of growth and decay. So, in English, analytical forms, a complex system of verbal form formation, are developing. But the system of declension and personal endings of the verb breaks up, words fall out of the vocabulary, new ones appear through borrowings or new formations.
The history of the language reveals all the processes that took place in the language at different stages of its existence, the causes (factors) of changes that are embedded in the language itself are called linguistic (or interlinguistic). And the factors connected with the history of the people, with the general development of human society, are extralinguistic. These two concepts and two sides of the history of language are constantly in contact.
In terms of vocabulary, English should be classified as a language of international origin, or at least one of the Romance languages (because French and Latin words predominate). But given the relative frequency of the spread of words, it is clear that the Anglo-Saxon heritage is taking its toll. The local element in English contains a huge number of frequently repeated words, such as articles, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, as well as words denoting objects of everyday life (child, water, come, good, bad, etc.)
The role of borrowings in the development of the vocabulary of the English language.
The role of borrowings in different languages is not the same and depends on the specific historical conditions for the development of each language. In English, the percentage of borrowings is much higher than in many other languages, because for historical reasons it turned out to be, in contrast to, for example, Icelandic, very permeable. English, more than any other language, had the opportunity to borrow foreign words in conditions of direct direct contact: first in the Middle Ages from successive foreign invaders in the British Isles, and later in the conditions of trade expansion and colonial activity of the British themselves. It is estimated that the number of native words in the English vocabulary is only about 30%.
It would be vulgar to think that the role of a word in a language is determined by whether it is borrowed or native. Nevertheless, all the most common prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs of time and place, all auxiliary and modal verbs, almost all strong verbs and almost all pronouns, adjectives with suppletive formation of degrees of comparison, all numerals, with the exception of second, million, billion and, finally , many nouns denoting the most common and constantly participating in the act of communication concepts are native words in modern English.
This or that influence of one language on another is always explained by historical reasons: wars, conquests, travel, trade, etc. lead to more or less close interaction of different languages. The intensity of the influx of new borrowed words in different periods is different. Depending on specific historical conditions, it either increases or decreases. The degree of influence of one language on another, in this case, largely depends on the language factor, namely, on the degree of proximity of the interacting languages, that is, on whether they are closely related or not.
The erroneous ideas that prevailed in linguistics regarding the problem of borrowings were not limited to an exaggeration of their role in the development of the language. The very approach to the topic was one-sided and formal. Researchers were mainly interested in the sources and dates of borrowings and, at best, the historical reasons and conditions for borrowing.
While these data are necessary, they cannot be limited. Scientists are now interested not only in where and why the borrowed word came from, but also how it assimilated into the language, how it obeyed its grammatical structure and phonetic norms, how it changed its meaning and what changes its appearance in the vocabulary of the language that adopted it caused.
As a matter of fact, individual Russian scientists have pointed out the need for just such an approach to borrowing for a long time. In particular, the largest Russian linguist of the 19th century believed that one should not ask what was borrowed from anyone, but one should ask about what was added, what was created as a result of the activity excited by the corresponding impulse when borrowing a word from another people. But this point of view was not widespread at the time and did not find a response.
paid attention to the creative element in the process of borrowing. “To borrow,” he said, “means to borrow in order, perhaps, to contribute more to the treasury of human culture than you receive.” Such an approach to the issue of borrowings makes it possible to identify the patterns that govern the development of the vocabulary of a language, to explain the phenomena occurring in it and to identify their causes, to reveal the links between the history of individual words, the history of the language and the history of the people. Let me explain with an example.
In considering the development of the word sport, we will not be satisfied with the information that the word was borrowed in the Middle English period from Old French, where it was desport and derived from the later Latin disportus. We will be interested in the fact that desport and disportus meant distraction, deviation, that in borrowing there was a specialization of meaning and in the Middle English word it had a more general meaning than at present, meaning entertainment, sport, fun, revival. I noticed that along with this word, in the same period, many words related to the entertainment of the nobility were borrowed from French into English, which is explained by the fact that after the Norman barons became sovereign masters of the country in the 11th century, the remnants of the Anglo-Saxon nobility assimilated their way of life and customs and, at the same time, the Norman dialect of the Old French language. Further, I will point out that the word obeys the English system of grammatical changes of nouns, receiving the ending -s in the plural. It not only replaces all sounds with English ones, and the last I is read, but also disappears, as is often observed in French borrowings, the first syllable (apheresis), as a result of which the word in sound terms is even more like original English words, which are characterized by monosyllables . In New English, this word undergoes some more changes in semantics and denotes physical exercises, mainly in the form of games and competitions. With this meaning, and in its new form it is borrowed back into French and other languages and becomes international. In the vocabulary of the English language, the verb disport to have fun is preserved in parallel, which, however, turns out to be of little use.
Due to the systemic nature of the language in general and vocabulary in particular, no new replenishment of the dictionary with borrowed words can pass without a trace for the rest of the vocabulary. A borrowed word usually takes on one or more meanings of words that are semantically closest to it and have already existed in the language. This is where the regrouping takes place. In their semantic structure, i.e., some secondary meaning can become central or vice versa. It can also occur, and often occurs, the displacement from the language of words that closely coincide in meaning with the new word. This happens because the prolonged coexistence in the language of absolute or almost absolute synonyms is impossible and is always eliminated either by delimiting their meanings or by ousting unnecessary words from the language.
Classification of borrowings.
Borrowed words in the vocabulary of the language can be classified: by the source of the borrowing, by what aspect of the word is borrowed, and by the degree of assimilation.
According to the source and era of borrowing in the vocabulary of the English language there are:
Celtic borrowings. Latin borrowings of the first centuries of our era, i.e., that came before the arrival of the Angles and Saxons to the British Isles (this is the name of the 1st layer of Latin borrowings). Latin borrowings of the 6th - 7th centuries, i.e., the era of the introduction of Christianity in England (this is the name of the 2nd layer of Latin borrowings). Scandinavian borrowings from the era of the Scandinavian raids (VIII - IX centuries) and especially the Scandinavian conquest ( 10th century). Old French borrowings (XII - XV centuries), due to the Norman conquest. Latin loanwordsXV-16th century century, i.e., associated with the Renaissance (this is the name of the 3rd layer of Latin borrowings). New French loanwords afterXVI century.. Borrowings from Greek, Italian, Dutch, Spanish, Russian, German and other languages, due to economic, political, cultural, etc. ties with the respective peoples. Sovietisms, that is, borrowings from the Russian language of the post-October period, reflecting the influence of the advanced social system and advanced ideology of our country.Classification according to the source of borrowing has been developed most fully, but, as already indicated, is not the only possible one. Borrowings can also be classified according to which aspect of the word is new to the receiving language. According to this principle, borrowings are divided into phonetic, calques ( translation - loans), semantic and borrowing word-building elements.
The first of these types, i.e. phonetic borrowings constitute the main and most numerous group. They are characterized by the fact that their common sound complex turns out to be new for the borrowing language, although each of the sounds that make up them, with rare exceptions, is replaced by the sound of the language into which they fall.
Tracing paper borrowings are called in the form of a literal translation of a foreign word or expression, i.e., its exact reproduction by means of the receiving language while maintaining the morphological structure and motivation.
Such tracing papers are, for example, many borrowings from the Indian language that have become international: pale-face - pale-faced,pipeofpeace - peace pipe. Many cripples among Sovietisms: palace of culture, house of rest.
Under semantic borrowing is understood as borrowing a new meaning, often figurative, to a word already in the language. The words pioneer and brigade existed in the English language even before the Sovietisms penetrated into it, but they received the meanings: a member of a children's communist organization and a labor collective under the influence of the Russian language of the post-October period.
Semantic borrowing occurs especially easily in closely related languages. A number of examples can be found among Scandinavian loanwords. So, for example, others - eng. verb dwellan wander, linger, under the influence of others - scand. dveljawun, developed into modern English in dwell live. Thus, in terms of sound dwell goes back to English, and in semantic to the Scandinavian verb.
There are more cases of semantic borrowing among nouns than among verbs. Noun gift in others - eng. meant not a gift, but a ransom for a wife and then, as a result of an association by adjacency, a wedding. Scandinavian word gift meant a gift, a gift, and this was reflected in the meaning of the original word. The words received their modern meanings from Scandinavian: bread (in others - English piece of bread), dream (in others - English joy), holm (in others - English ocean, sea), plough (in others - English measure of the earth).
Not only the word can be borrowed, but also separate meaningful parts of the word. Morphemes are borrowed, of course, not in isolation, but in words: if some foreign morphemes are included in a large number of borrowed words, then the morphological structure of these words begins to be realized, and the morphemes themselves are included in the number of word-building means of the receiving language. Many Greek and Latin words have become international prefixes. For example, anti-, counter-, inter-, sub-, ultra- etc. In all languages, Greek suffixes are well used: -ist, -ism, -isk.
According to the degree of assimilation of borrowing can be subdivided into:
Completely assimilated, that is, corresponding to all morphological, phonetic and spelling norms of the borrowing language and perceived by speakers as English, and not foreign words. Partially assimilated, i.e., remaining foreign in their pronunciation, spelling or grammatical form m. Partially assimilated and denoting concepts related to other countries and not having an English equivalent. For example: from Russian - rouble, verst; from Spanish - duenna, matador, real (coin).This group of words includes the names of concepts associated with foreign national culture, for example, the names of various national clothes, dwellings, musical instruments, titles, professions, utensils, etc., and with foreign nature: i.e., the names of animals, plants.
Borrowing sources.
Borrowings in the English vocabulary represent the sphere of vocabulary that most closely and directly reflects the history of England, showing the influence of external non-linguistic causes on the language. Therefore, it is advisable to trace them in chronological order, linking them with the history of the English people.
When the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes moved into Britain in the 5th century AD, they found there a Celtic population of the Britons and Gauls, whom they pushed west (Wales and Cornwall) and north (Scotland). In the clash of languages, the victory went to the language of the aliens. The development of their language and gave modern English.
Borrowings from the language of the Celts turned out to be very few and relate mainly to toponymy, that is, to geographical names.
There are very few such Celtic words that would have been known to us already in Old English and would have survived in the language to this day.
There are two layers of Latin borrowings in Old English.
Words that belong to the first layer (before 800) could have come through the Celtic language and be associated with the Roman dominion in Britain that lasted the first four centuries of our era, or they could have entered the language of the Angles and Saxons on the continent.
Be that as it may, they testify to a higher material culture of the Romans than that of the Celtic and Germanic tribes of that time and mean specific things and concepts previously unknown to the Anglo-Saxons.
Many Latin names have been preserved in toponymy. Yes, lat. castrum- fortification, fort, had a plural, castra with a grammatically related meaning camp, from where others - eng. ceaster and modern - caster, Chester in different geographical names. For example: Lancaster, Dorchester,Manchester, Winchester.
All the words of this group are borrowed orally, completely assimilated and included in the main vocabulary of the English language. At the same time, they obeyed the grammatical structure of the English language, having lost those grammatical forms that were characteristic of them in the Latin language, and also obeyed all those regular phonetic changes that occurred in the words of the English language throughout its history.
The second layer of Latin borrowings includes words that entered the Old English language after the adoption of Christianity, which began in 596. Just like the words of the first layer, these are predominantly monosyllabic words, borrowed orally and for the most part denoting specific concepts.
It is important to pay attention to the fact that, in general, the vocabulary of the Old English language is less permeable compared to the New English period. Its vocabulary is much more homogeneous and borrowings are limited to the sphere of nouns. Only three verbs can be added to the list above: to offer, to spend, to shrive.
All these early Latin borrowings underwent a significant evolution in the future, both in their form and in meaning. The influence of the Scandinavian languages had a fundamentally different character, due to the raids of the Scandinavians on the British Isles that began in the 8th century and the subsequent subordination of England to the Danish king (1017). Both the conquering people and the defeated people in this case stood at approximately the same socio-economic and cultural stage of development, spoke closely related languages. Their languages stood, as it were, in the position of dialects interacting in communication. Therefore, during the period of the Scandinavian conquest, borrowings are not only numerous, and subsequently very stable, but also very diverse both in the semantic sphere and in parts of speech, and are observed even in the least permeable of these latter. So, from the Scandinavian borrowed: pronouns: they- they, with all their forms, and same- the one; unions: till- not yet though- Although; adverb fro- back. The number of adjectives borrowed from Scandinavian is quite significant, and all of them are used in speech very often. These are adjectives like happy, low, loose, ill, odd, ugly, weak.
These words, as well as the verbs given below, do not introduce any new concepts, but replace and displace words that have already existed before. The influence of Scandinavian on Old English was reflected not only in the replacement and displacement of some original words, but also in a number of significant phonetic and semantic changes in a number of words in the main vocabulary.
The proximity of both languages contributes to the so-called semantic borrowings, in which native words changed their meaning under the influence of related Scandinavian words.
Saving a combination sk at the beginning of a word before vowels without a transition to [J] is a phonetic criterion for recognizing Scandinavian borrowings from native words.
The combination occurs only in loanwords, not necessarily Scandinavian ones. Wed borrowings from French squire and from the Greek. skeptic.
Borrowings from French
Quite a different character than the early Scandinavian borrowings are
French borrowings from the Norman Conquest era. Here follows
take into account, first of all, the fact that the French language in relation to
English took a dominant position as the language of the court, feudal
nobility, government offices, schools and generally as the main language
writing (along with Latin). In this regard, the French words, in
unlike the Scandinavian ones, in their mass clearly reflect the position, image
life, activities and interests of those social strata that
exclusively or predominantly used French: action
– action (Middle English accioun – `action, accusation`: from
Old French accioun); agreeable - `pleasant, consonant` (cf.
agreable: from Old French. aggressive); beauty - `beauty` (cf.-eng.
beautee: from Old French. beat); carpenter - carpenter (carpenter: from Old French.
carpentier); duke - duke (duk: from Old French duc) and many others.
The dominance of the French language ends in the second half of the 16th century,
but the largest number of borrowings from it falls precisely on this
time: English, displacing French, especially needed
enriching their vocabulary with those elements that the latter possessed.
It should be noted, however, that the original French
spread in England mainly in the form of the Norman dialect,
mixed with elements of northeastern French dialects. Already in the XIII century.
French began to lose in England the character of a living spoken language and
gradually turned into a traditional official language (now French
language is assigned the role of official in the field of international document management
(as Latin - in the medical field)). For this reason, later
borrowings are created mainly not from Anglo-French, but from
central French (Parisian or Francian), which prevailed in
As can be seen from the examples above, borrowings from French
language, were, in contrast to Scandinavian borrowings,
specific terms-names associated with new concepts introduced
Norman conquerors. Most of these borrowings remained
on the periphery of the vocabulary and in their phonetic and structural
features of the language of the person: they constitute a large group of polysyllabic
words typical mainly for the language of literary and scientific and
characterized by a specific word-formation structure.
However, some words over time have become common, everyday and
commonly used: for example, face - face (la face), gay - cheerful (gai),
hour - hour(l'heure), ink - ink(les encre), joy - joy(la jolie)
letter - letter(la letter), money - money(la monnaie), pay - pay
(payer), river - river(la riviere),
table - table(la table), place (la place), large (large), change (changer),
minute (la minute), second (la second), mountain (la montagne), soil (le
sol), air (l'air), flower (la fleur), fruit (le fruit).
Due to the fact that from French to English it was
borrowed a huge number of lexical units, many of which
had a complex word-formation structure, the influence of the French language in
greatly affected the system of English word formation.
Certain French suffixes and prefixes found in
borrowed words could be extracted from these words and used for
formation of words, from primordial roots.
For example: suffix - able, extracted from borrowings such as acceptable
- acceptable at accept- accept; suffix - ence - from difference,
excellence, evidence, violence;
In addition, borrowings from French have increased the incidence of
conversions in English. The point is that from the same
stems from the French language had many parallel borrowings. IN
system of the English language, they took shape as paradigms of various parts of speech:
honor - honor (honour: from Old French.honor,honor) -honor - to read (sa.honouren: from Old French.honorer) And
However, it would be erroneous to assume that all pairs of words in French
origin, correlated by conversion in modern English,
are parallel borrowings. Much more common in English
only one of the words was borrowed from French, and the other was created
by conversion based on this word only later: abuse - abuse,
insult - formed from abuse - mistreat, abuse,
insult (sa. abusen - abuse, mistreat, insult,
deceive: from old French. abuser) and others.
At the same time, cases of conversion due to parallel borrowing
from French, and cases of conversion that arose on the basis of one French
borrowings in the English language itself, outwardly do not differ from each other
friend: compare, on the one hand, honor - (to) honor; labor - (to)
labour; note - (to) labor; note - (to) note; pain - (to) pain andT.P., AWith
anothersides, abuse - (to) abuse; act - (to) act; direct - (to) direct And
This once again proves that the distinction in the system of modern
English language cases such as honor (honor) - honor (honor), And
such cases as abuse (insult) - abuse (insult), based on their
of different origin has no basis. These cases
had a different history, but at present they are in a completely
identical relations, and therefore must be recognized as identical with
point of view of modern English.
Later borrowings from French stand out in particular.
First of all, these borrowings are few in number. In addition, these
borrowings for the most part have no or almost no parallel
single-root formations, and often differ in their sound and
spelling shell.
Borrowings from French continue to replenish vocabulary
composition to date. In the 19th and early 20th centuries they wear
predominantly bookish. However, during the period immediately
following the end of World War II, English borrows
French words as a result of live communication between the American army and
the French people.
Of particular interest is the influence of French words on the vocabulary of the English language in
recent (late 20th century). French loanwords appear in
many areas of life. This is politics, and social life, sports and recreation. They
saturate the English language with colors, make it special, enliven.
Despite the fact that modern English consists of approximately
one third of the words of Romance origin, he did not lose his
originality as the language of the Germanic group. Lots of French and
other foreign borrowings not only enriched this language, but in some
that degree compensated for the underdeveloped system
word-formation means to express new concepts or shades
values. Many borrowings from French were due
historically:
. words associated with feudal relations: feudal, baron, vassal,
liege, chivalry (some of these words, at that time reflected in their
meaning feudal ideology, later received a general meaning: command,
obey, serve, noble, glory, danger)
. almost all titles except king, queen, earl, lord and lady
Norman-French origin.
The transition to another part of speech is also observed in some borrowings from the French language. So, many infinitives of French verbs in their ending resembled English nouns and became such: dinner lunch, remainder - the remainder.
Borrowed words go through a complex path of semantic development. Yes, the word clerk from later - lat. - clericus, from Greek. - clerikos meant in Old English a priest, in Middle English a literate person, a student, an official and a scientist, and in New English an office worker - clerk.
When comparing the meanings of a borrowed word with what it had in the language it came from, it is usually found that in the borrowing language it retains only a part of its meanings, often one, and not the main one, but a derivative, and often becomes a term. Vivid examples of this are borrowed from Russian sputnik and soviet. french word marcher - to walk gives march - to march, a term originally military.
Cases where in the borrowing language a word acquires a meaning that it did not have at all in the language from which it came are rare exceptions and are explained by the further development of the meaning in the borrowing language, with the loss of the original meaning. So, the French word tenez - hold, was used when playing tennis and gave the name to this sport.
Thus, the general position that in each language, in addition to the general laws that determine the development of the language, there are also its own internal laws of its development that determine its national specifics, as applied to borrowings in the English language, could be formulated as follows: foreign words, getting into the English language, are gradually assimilated in it, obeying its grammatical, phonetic and semantic structure.
The degree of assimilation depends on the historical conditions for the development of each particular word, i.e., on the time of borrowing, the nature of the borrowing, the communicative significance of the word, etc.
French borrowings in the works of the English writer A. Christie.
When identifying French borrowings in the work of A. Christie “Why didn't they ask Evans?” (“Evans knows the answer”), we used the following criteria to determine the French origin of a word:
1) The presence of words that have completely preserved the French spelling or pronunciation: pincktte,camaraderier,dejeuner,monsenieur,family,demagogue,ennui,avenue,costume,matinee,potage,porte-cocher,corbleau,spirituel,poulet,gourmand,repertoire
2) The presence of words with suffixes: -ment - able -tion - sion eclaricissement, disappointment, miserable, situation, appartement
3) The presence in the studied linguistic material of words with letter combinations: - ai-ion - lie affaire, aids-de-camp, billet-doux
4) The presence of words with letter combinations -ch - chaussure, chausse, chambre
We also recorded the presence of the words we selected in the French-Russian dictionary and were guided by another criterion, namely, the obligatory similarity of the meanings of these words in English and French. Our study has shown that numerous borrowings that penetrated into the English language at different periods of its historical development reflect various spheres of human activity and relate to almost all aspects of the material, socio-political and cultural life of England. New phenomena appeared in all these areas. This required the emergence of new concepts to denote a particular phenomenon. In the works of A. Christie, we found some of them and classified them. Yes, to the area social and political life employe, partie, monde, camaraderier, garcon, aids-de-camp, abbe (worker, party, society, clergy, waiter, adjutant, abbot). From all the French borrowings we have selected, we have identified lexical units related to the household: menage, tableau, appartement, salon, chambre (household, painting, apartment, living room, bedroom).
To the topic "Fashion" We have included the following borrowings: decoltee, costume de cour, coquette, chaussure
To the topic " Food" include the following borrowings: gourmand, potage, soiree, dejeuner, pate-de fois gras, tartine, mousseline To the sphere human relations borrowings include: tete-a-tete, billet-doux, tendre, protegee, poulet, m esalliance, rendez-vous, disappointment (private conversation, love letter, tender feelings, protege, love letter, unequal marriage, date, disappointment).
The study of linguistic material in the works of A. Christie allowed us to identify 82 words borrowed by English from French at various periods of its development. Of course, we cannot claim that we have identified absolutely all French borrowings, since this requires a deeper scientific study with tracing the history of the appearance of each lexical unit in the language. We would like to note that most of the borrowed words from the material we have selected are:
- nouns (81% of the selected vocabulary), adjectives (about 13%), adverbs make up about 3.5%, verbs - less than 2.5%.
Now we present the identified borrowings in the works of A. Christie, distributed by grammatical categories in the form of a table:
Nouns Adjectives Adverbs Verbs
chaussure tete-a-tete aids-de-camp
potage pas emigrer
garcon engagement
protegee eclaricissement
tartine bonne conretemps
monsieur dejeuner
pate de fois gras
partie ennui encore
place disappointment
enfant rendez-vous coquette pave
corbleau spirituel
blase passe apropos au revoir
parbleau infame amuser
On this basis, we can draw the following conclusions: - of all parts of speech, nouns are most freely borrowed, then adjectives, adverbs, and least of all - verbs; - our study did not reveal a single borrowed service word. The abundance of borrowed main parts of speech and the small number or even the absence of borrowed prepositions, conjunctions and interjections can be explained by the fact that in any language a large number of the former and a small number of the latter function. That is, the language needs only a small number of auxiliary words that perform a purely grammatical function of denoting generalized relations between the main parts of speech; - sufficiently large classes of words are more likely to be involved in the process of borrowing, so the percentage of borrowed nouns, for example, turned out to be very large.
Problems of assimilation of borrowed words.
Assimilation of borrowed words is their adaptation in phonetic, grammatical, semantic and graphic relation to the system of the language that receives them. The degree of assimilation can be very different and depends on how long ago the borrowing happened, whether it happened orally or through a book, how common the word is, etc. are not felt by the speakers as foreign, fully correspond to the English grammatical, phonetic and spelling systems in form, pronunciation and spelling, are stylistically neutral and can form derivative or compound words, i.e. serve as the basis for word formation. Grammatically and stylistically, borrowings are used in speech in the same way as native English words. Verbs are included in the system of standard English verbs, receiving a dental suffix in the past tense and in the past participle: associated,exaggerated,accumulated,liberalized,radiation,ventilated,acted,corrected,confused,interfered,disturbed. Nouns receive standard endings in the plural: eggs,gates,laws,knives,roots,sales,skins, snares, wings. In modern English, only a few borrowed nouns have retained the plural inflection that they had in the language where the numbers came from: native and English -
formulas - formulae, indexes - indices, geniuses - genii. Sometimes two different plural forms are differentiated semantically. For example, along with the form bandits the Italian form is retained banditty, when it comes to romantic robbers in a fairy tale or operetta. Commonly used words have only one plural form - English: villas, spectators, circles. Fully assimilated borrowings are included in the English word-formation system with all those ways and means of word-formation that are productive. Adverbs with native English suffix -1y, adjectives in -ml And -less and abstract nouns with suffixes -ness, -ship, -dom etc. are also freely formed from French stems, as well as from native ones: nicely, pleasantly, cheerful, beautiful, powerless, gentleness, companionship, etc. English prefixes: un-, fore-, over, be- can join the stems of borrowed words: unaidedunavoidable,unconcious,forecast, overcharge, bepraise etc. Words made up of elements
borrowed from different languages, or from elements partially borrowed and partially native, are called hybrids ( hybrids). For example: beautiful (French root + English suffix), unmistakable (English prefixes + Scandinavian root + Latin suffix). The number of hybrids in English significantly exceeds their number in other languages. As can be seen from the above examples, combinations in hybrids can be very diverse, primordial affixes can be combined with borrowed roots and, conversely, primordial roots with borrowed affixes, in the same word, primordial and borrowed affixes can be present at the same time, etc. The degree of phonetic assimilation can also be different. If the English language already had all the sounds that make up the borrowed word, then it is reproduced quite accurately; if there were any sounds alien to the English language, each of them was replaced by the closest sound of the English language. After the complete phonetic assimilation of a word in a language, all its constituent sounds undergo the same historical changes as the corresponding sounds in the native words.
In addition to the above borrowings, modern English also contains words from the languages of African and Australian peoples, from Chinese and Turkic languages.
Conclusion.
So, having studied the history of the English language, having made a thorough
etymological analysis of loanwords in English, one can
draw certain conclusions. In the course of the work, it turned out that foreign
languages have had a much greater influence on the development of the English language than on
development of many other European languages.
Having become acquainted with the numerous works of scientists in the field of lexicology,
join, perhaps, the opinion of those who believed that, despite the high
percentage of borrowings, English cannot be classified as a language
of international origin or as one of the Romanesque. local element
contains a huge number of words, and the grammatical structure remains
untouched.
Lexical spheres in which borrowings occurred in different periods
from certain languages, turn out to be indicative of those economic,
political, cultural ties that existed among the English people
with peoples who speak these languages. The processes of assimilation of these words
natural and due to the specific features of the English language.
The modern vocabulary of the English language has been changed and supplemented by
for many centuries and now has in its stock a large number
words, which also had an ambiguous influence on the formation of his
vocabulary. But, despite this, the English language has not turned into a kind of
"hybrid" and has not lost its originality. In contrast to this one can say
current French as the official language of France, native speakers
who zealously care about the purity of the language, trying to limit, isolate
it from foreign language innovations. On the one hand, as it may seem, the language
should retain its essence, characteristic. On the other hand, attempts
isolate the language as a carrier of national culture, art,
mentality may not justify the expected results. This is possibly
will stop the development of the language, make it less alive and bright. No wonder the number
wishing to learn French in recent years significantly
decreased.
English, not limited by any framework, has not lost its
"faces"; it remained the language of the Germanic group with all the characteristic features,
inherent to him throughout his development, and those changes that he
suffered in connection with borrowings, enriched its vocabulary
the best linguistic elements that he could absorb in his entire
Vocabulary borrowing is an interaction of bringing nations closer together
on the basis of economic, political, scientific and cultural ties. bright
an example of this is the numerous French borrowings in
English language.
Having undergone various morphological, phonetic and lexical
changes, many borrowings have lost their French appearance and
are perceived more as foreign words. The path that has been taken
borrowing before their full assimilation by the language was multi-stage. obeying
laws of the borrowing language, some borrowings have developed new
meanings that are not characteristic of their original versions.
Acquiring new meanings, the borrowed word expands the circle
possible combinations for him, penetrates deeper into the thickness of the vocabulary,
more and more branches its semantic connection with other words, and together with
that, against the background of the latter, stands out more clearly as an independent
lexical unit of the language.
French has had the greatest influence on English in
Middle English period. Attempts to continue accumulating borrowing in XX
century did not bring much success, since the need for such
borrowings disappeared - the language became self-sufficient.
In our opinion, we managed to study the problem of French borrowings
in English. We analyzed the possible ways of penetration of the French
words into English, considered various types of borrowings.
In the practical part, we considered this problem in practice.
Having identified and studied borrowings, we examined their quantitative
ratio in the works of the English writer Agatha Christie.
It is estimated that the number of native words in the English vocabulary is only about 30%.
French borrowings - 25%
Latin borrowings - 20%
Russian borrowings-10%
Borrowings from other languages-15%
And yet, the presence in modern English of a significant
the number of French borrowings explains the great role that they
played in the enrichment of the vocabulary and in the formation of lexical norms
English, since borrowings allow the language to save its
own nomination opportunities, and contribute to the further development
word formation.
Despite some clogging of English vocabulary with words,
borrowed from other languages, the English language as a whole has not suffered from
a large influx of foreign language elements. On the contrary, its vocabulary,
undoubtedly enriched. This was made possible by the fact that he learned
foreign language elements, having absorbed everything valuable and necessary, discarding in the course
further development is all random.
So, in this work, the desired was undoubtedly fulfilled:
found that foreign borrowings have become one of the most
productive ways to enrich the vocabulary of the English language.
Bibliography:
1. Arakin of the English language.- M. (Higher school, 1968.-420 p.)
2. Arakin on the history of the English language.- M. (Enlightenment, 1955.-
3. Arnold scientific research in linguistics (Tutorial.-
M. (1991.-140 p.)
4., Solovyov foreign
literature (Textbook for philological special universities. - M. (1991.-637 p.)
5. From the history of English words (Book for senior students
classes.- M. (Enlightenment, 1994.-95 p.)
6. Halperin English-Russian Dictionary (in 2 volumes. Approx.
words. - 3rd ed., stereotype. - M. (Rus. yaz., 197s.)
7. Ivanov English words. 2000 (Internet).
8. Kunin Phraseology of Modern English (Textbook
for institutes and faculties in. lang. - M. (Higher school, 198s.)
9. Medvedev Ya. History of the English language. 1999 (Internet)
10. Sapelkin A. Languages of the world. 1999. (Interent)
11. Sekirin in English. 1999. (Internet)
12. Smirnitsky English. M. (2000. -260 p.)
13. Haugen E. The process of borrowing // New in linguistics (6).
M. (Progress, 1985. Internet)
14. Christie A. “Why didn't they ask Evans?” - M.: Higher. Shk., 1991. - 175 p. - (Library of home reading). - in English. lang.
English is considered one of the richest languages in the world. It contains about 200 thousand words of active vocabulary. Few languages can match it in the richness of its vocabulary. The reason for this is the word-formation abilities of the English language, as well as its ability to borrow words from other languages. Everyone knows that the vocabulary of the English language has absorbed a really huge number of words from different languages of the world, in this regard, we would really like to know from which languages the vocabulary was borrowed and, finally, from which language of the world the most words were borrowed.
When a word is borrowed from one language to another, it is very difficult to predict what fate awaits it. A word can develop a new system of meanings for it and enter into new relationships in combination with other words in the vocabulary of the borrowing language, move away from its original state and therefore cease to be felt as an alien element in the language. So, for example, it happened with the noun stomach, which, while continuing to be an anatomical term, became widely used and entered phraseological turns like to have no stomach for something (to have no taste or desire for something), haughty stomach (arrogance), etc. This process is observed in other languages as well. The influence of one language on another does not go unnoticed. This process is observed in all languages of the world, so this topic is relevant for all nations and nationalities. Of course, the language continues to expand through borrowing and borrowing contributes to the enrichment of the vocabulary of the language.
We believe that the topic of this research work is relevant for our time, because borrowing is an integral part of our modern life.
From our point of view, the main centers of attraction for new borrowings are
1. Everyday life in its domestic and cultural aspects:
Sushi, geisha, tenaki-sushi - Japanese;
Machine - French
Harem - Arabic;
Hamburger - German;
Pizza, spaghetti, macaroni - Italian.
2. Social and political life:
Glasnost, perestroika, nomenclatura - Russian;
Viking - Scandinavian;
Hara-kiri, samurai - Japanese;
Bank, balcony, umbrella - Italian.
3. Sphere of culture (literature, cinema, theater, music, painting, etc.):
Ballet - French;
Karaoke, ikebana - Japanese;
Piano, opera, sonata - Italian.
4. Scientific and technical sphere:
Mechatronics - French;
Tenaki is Japanese.
5. World of sports:
Kimono, aiki-jitsu, aikido - Japanese.
Summing up the above, it should be emphasized that without this layer it is impossible to imagine the entire corpus of the new vocabulary of the English language. And, of course, foreign borrowings played a huge role in the development of the English language.
3. Research methods
The collection, processing, interpretation of the material, as well as the analysis of international words and the questioning of students in the knowledge of the meaning of international words, allowed us to study this topic in depth and solve the research problem.
4. Goals and objectives of the study
The goal is to explore the process of interpenetration of words in the English language in its interaction with other languages. To identify sources, motivation, scope of borrowing, expand horizons and vocabulary.
The tasks are to:
1) identify where and why the borrowed word came into English;
2) to determine what changes were caused by its appearance in the vocabulary of the English language;
3) identify international words in English and point out some discrepancies in Russian and English;
4) establish the main methods of borrowing;
5) Find out why English has a greater ability to borrow foreign words than any other language.
General characteristics of English borrowings
2. 1. The role and conditions of borrowing in vocabulary
The role of borrowings (borrowings) in different languages is not the same and depends on the specific historical conditions for the development of each language. In English, the percentage of borrowings is much higher than in many other languages, because, for historical reasons, it turned out to be, in contrast to many languages, very permeable. English, more than any other language, has the ability to borrow foreign words in conditions of direct direct contact with other languages: first in the Middle Ages from foreign invaders who succeeded each other in the British Isles, and later in the conditions of trade expansion and colonial activity of the British themselves.
Borrowings are one of the important ways of enriching the vocabulary, but not the only and not even the most important.
We are interested in where and why the borrowed word came from and how it took root in the language, how it changed its meaning and what changes its appearance in the vocabulary of the language that adopted it caused.
The largest Russian linguist of the 19th century, A. A. Potrebnya, drew attention to the creative element in the process of borrowing. “To borrow,” he said, “means to take in order, perhaps, to contribute more to the treasury of human culture than you receive.”
A borrowed word usually takes on one or more meanings of words closest to it, already existing in the language. In this case, some secondary value can become central or vice versa. It can also happen, and often happens, the displacement from the language of words that closely coincide in meaning with the new word. This happens because the continuous existence in the language of absolute or almost absolute synonyms is always eliminated either by delimiting their meanings or by ousting unnecessary words from the language.
It should be emphasized that the fixation of a borrowed word in the language does not necessarily lead to the displacement of the corresponding native one. The changes in vocabulary caused by it can be expressed in stylistic grouping or in demarcation of meanings. So, for example, a borrowed word from the French language people pushed aside the original word folk. The word folk at the same time received an additional meaning. It is used when talking about their own: about family, fellow villagers, countrymen, compatriots. This word is common in folk colloquial speech and in folk art, and it is not for nothing that it is part of the term folklore.
This or that influence of one language on another is always explained by historical reasons: wars, conquests, travel, trade, etc., which lead to more or less close interaction of different languages. The intensity of the influx of new borrowed words in different periods is very different. Depending on specific historical conditions, it either increases or decreases.
Borrowing vocabulary can occur orally and in writing. In the case of oral borrowing, words take root faster in the language. Words borrowed in writing retain their phonetic, spelling and grammatical features longer.
2. 2. Main methods of borrowing
The main ways of borrowing vocabulary are the phonetic method, transliteration and tracing.
The phonetic method is such a borrowing of words in which its sound form is preserved. In this way, the words football (football), trailer (trailer), jeans (Jeans) and others are borrowed from English. Borrowed into English, for example, from the French regime, ballet, bouquet and others.
Transliteration is another method of borrowing in which the spelling of a foreign word is borrowed: the letters of the foreign word are replaced by the letters of the native language. By this method, the words cruise (eng. cruise), motel (eng. motel), club (eng. club) are borrowed from English into Russian. Many proper names are also transliterated when borrowing from English: Washington (eng. Washington), Texas (eng. Texas ["teksəs]), London (eng. london). In English, there are many words of Greek, Latin and French origin that have been preserved their graphic features, although they are read according to the rules of the English language.
Tracing is a method of borrowing in which the associative meaning and structural model of a word or phrase are borrowed. When tracing, the components of a borrowed word or phrase are translated separately and combined according to the model of a foreign word or phrase. For example, the German noun Vaterland, translated in parts, gave the English tracing paper Fatherland; the Russian noun suicide is a tracing-paper of the Latin suicide (sui yourself, cide - murder); the English noun self-service, borrowed into Russian, has the form self-service. The following phrases were borrowed by this method: vicious circle - a vicious circle; masterpiece - a masterpiece; rep pate - pseudonym; blue stocking blue stocking, scientist woman and others.
2. 3. Sources of borrowing
1. French borrowings
The influence of the French language on English was especially strong during the period of French domination in the country (XI-XV centuries), when the national English language had not yet developed. The French invasion of England in 1066 marked the beginning of the so-called period of the Norman Conquest. French was the official language of England for a long time, and there was bilingualism in the country.
During this period, words associated with feudal relations (feudal, baron, vassal) were borrowed; almost all titles (peer, prince, count) and addresses sir and madam; words associated with the ruling government and the state in general (state, people, nation, government, power, authority, etc.); words associated with monetary relations (money, property); words denoting family relationships (parent, cousin, uncle, aunt, etc.); a large number of military terms (army, battle, victory, war, etc.); words denoting pleasure, entertainment (feast, pleasure, delight, comfort, etc.); legal terms (accuse, court, crime, etc.), etc.
The New English language takes shape during the Renaissance. Scientific writings of this period are already written in English, but since before that, in the Middle Ages, the language of science was Latin and since the Renaissance is characterized by interest in the monuments of ancient culture, the use of style, rhetorical techniques of building Greek and Roman authors, it is completely Naturally, both the replenishment of the dictionary and the creation of new scientific terminology went to a large extent due to borrowings from Latin, as well as from Greek. This is how, for example, the terminology of philosophy, law, medicine, etc. was created.
In addition to French, a number of European languages, to a greater or lesser extent, participated in the enrichment of the vocabulary of the English language, for example, Latin, Dutch, Italian, Spanish.
2. Latin borrowings
A considerable number of words were borrowed from Latin into English. Here are the most common of them: street - paved (road); port - port; wall - shaft; vacuum - vacuum; wine - wine; inertia - inertia; mile - a thousand steps.
All these words were borrowed orally and entered the main vocabulary of the English language.
The largest number of words borrowed by English from Latin are the so-called book borrowings. These are words that have entered the language not as a result of direct, live communication between peoples, but through written documents, books, and so on. Most of the Latin book borrowings that were not previously attested in English come from the Renaissance period in England. It is impossible to give a list of these words within the limits of this work; for this, it is necessary to compile a special dictionary.
3. Dutch borrowings
Even in the Middle Ages, there were quite close trade and industrial ties between England and the Netherlands. England attracted a fairly significant number of Dutch and Flemish craftsmen of various specialties, mainly shipbuilders and weavers, to work in guild enterprises. There are especially many words of Dutch origin in the terminology of shipbuilding and navigation. These are, for example: cruise - cruising, dock - dock, geef - reef (hole on the sail for the rope), skipper - skipper, yacht - yacht, etc. Weaving terms of Dutch origin that entered English in the Middle English and earlier New English period . Such as: to gloss - give shine to the fabric, rock - spinning wheel, spool - bobbin, stripe - a flap of fabric.
As well as a special group of Dutch borrowings in English are art terms that have come into the vocabulary of the English language. For example, landscape is a landscape, maulstick is a maulstick, etc.
4. Italian and Spanish borrowings
The Italian language also made a significant contribution to the vocabulary of the English language, starting approximately from the 16th century. During the Renaissance, Italian culture, especially in the field of music, painting, architecture, literature, had a great influence on the culture of England; this was reflected, in particular, in the borrowing of many words related to the listed areas, already directly from the Italian language and in most cases with the preservation of their original form. Such are the musical terms allegro, aria, legato, libretto, opera, sonata, soprano, tempo, trio; terms from the field of fine arts, for example, fresco, studio, terra cotta, etc. Words such as grotto, granite, fiasco, incognito, soda, umbrella also came into wide use in England; including words that convey in the perception of English tourists the characteristic details of Italian life, for example, macaroni, spaghetti, etc. In connection with the development of trade relations between England and Italy, such Italian words as bank - bank, Lombard - Lombard (from the name of the Italian region of Lombardy, from where many usurers and money changers came out in the Middle Ages), traffic - trade and others.
Spanish has contributed a number of its own words to the English vocabulary and has also served as a transmitter for many words from the various indigenous languages of the Americas.
In the English vocabulary, you can count several dozen Spanish words borrowed directly from the Spanish language. For example, words such as: armada - navy, banana - banana, barbecue - lattice, bonanza - accumulation of rich ore, booby - fool, bravado - boasting, canyon - gorge, canoe - kayak, chilli - red pepper, chocolate - chocolate, cigar - cigar, negro - negro, potato - potato, tobacco - tobacco, tomato - tomato, tornado - whirlwind, vanilla - vanilla.
5. German borrowings
There are also a number of borrowed German words in modern English vocabulary. Most often, the influence of the German language is manifested in the form of a phrase, such as: bolt from the blue - thunder from a clear sky, chain-smoker - a chain smoker, homesickness - homesickness, masterpiece - a masterpiece, place in the sun - a place in the sun, song without words - songs without words, storm and stress - storm and onslaught, swan song - swan song, one-sided - one-sided, time-spirit - spirit of the time, superman - superman, world-famous - world famous. Especially a lot of words and expressions came from the terminology of classical German philosophy, for example, world-outlook-worldview.
6. Russian borrowings
The history of Russian borrowings in English reflects the history of trade and political relations between Russia and England. The Russian language began to influence English much later than other European languages, such as Latin, French, German, Italian, and Spanish.
Historical borrowings include a group of words from the pre-revolutionary, revolutionary and Soviet periods: arsheen (arshin), tzar (king), desyatin (tithe), kulak (fist), okhrana (security), bolshevik (bolshevik), politbureau (politburo), sovnarhoz (sovnarkhoz), etc.
Everyday vocabulary demonstrates the originality of the way of Russian life: babushka (grandmother), blin (pancake), kovsh (ladle), zakuska (snack), kasha (porridge), samovar (samovar), vodka (vodka), etc. The words of this group found in the description of Russian life.
Biogeographic vocabulary is made up of words denoting plants, animals, natural phenomena and zones: badiaga (badyaga), zubr (bison), tur (tour), sable (sable), suslik (ground squirrel), beluga (beluga), buran (blizzard) , purga (blizzard), steppe (steppe), etc.
Socio-political vocabulary is represented by words denoting the socio-political structure of Russia at the present stage: perestroika (perestroika), glasnost (glasnost), intelligentsia (intelligentsia), Russianness (Russian spirit), Duma (Duma), apparat (apparatus), chinovnik ( official), starosta (headman), etc.
Vocabulary associated with art includes words of native Russian meaning: balalaika (balalaika), bylina (epic), gusli (harp), prisiadka (squat).
Army vocabulary - represented by such famous words as Kalashnikov (Kalashnikov), Katyusha (Katyusha), stavka (headquarters), feldsher (paramedic).
In conclusion, it should be noted that Russian borrowings also played a big role in improving the modern philosophical and political terminology of all languages, including English.
After examining all sources of borrowing in English and analyzing statistical data from the Internet (see appendices on page 19), we can confidently state that the percentage of borrowings from other languages is very high.
2. 4. International words
A special group is made up of international words. It often happens that denoting an important new concept, a word is borrowed not into any one language, but into many languages. Thus, an international fund of vocabulary is being created, which includes international terminology of various areas of human activity: politics, philosophy, science, technology, art, as well as many abstract words.
International, or international words, borrowed from one source, have a graphic and sound similarity and, coinciding to some extent in meaning, constitute, as it were, the common property of a number of languages at the expense of the vocabulary of the ancients, i.e. Latin and Greek (democracy, proletarian, philosophy , atom, modern, program, system).
Another part of them comes from modern languages: soviet, kolkhoz, sputnik - from Russian revolution, bourgeois, telegraph - from French football, telephone, cruise, motel, club, analysis, army, communism, culture, nation, function, instruction, international, geometry, geography, mathematics, physics, philosophy. It also includes a large number of terms of physics, chemistry, biology, physiology, etc.
From the above examples, we see that many terms belong to the international vocabulary, that is, they are the property of not only English, but also a number of other languages.
Practical part
As a result of borrowing, the English language was replenished with international words, which are understood as words that occur in many languages of the world, but have minor phonetic differences associated with the peculiarities of pronunciation of each language. For example: address, telegraph, socialism.
We conducted a survey among the students of our lyceum in order to show the discrepancies in some meanings in Russian and English.
40 students had to write what this or that word means in Russian and what meaning it has in English.
We have chosen several such international words: control, family, general, magazine, original, atom.
Here are the results we got after analyzing the answers to the tasks.
The first word was - control
All 40 students (100%) know the original meaning of this word ‘control’. 10 students (25%) know that this word has many meanings and can take on the meanings - 'management', 'leadership', 'power'.
The second was the word - family
All 40 students (100%) know that in English family means only 'family' or 'genus', and 'surname' never has any meaning in English.
We took the third word - general
All 40 students (100%) answered that general is the same as the Russian word ‘general’. 30 people (75%) answered that more often this word general acts as an adjective meaning 'main', 'general', 'ordinary'.
The fourth word we took was magazine
All students (40 people - 100%) answered that the word magazine does not correspond to the Russian 'shop', but has the meaning 'magazine'. And two (5%) also translated the word as ‘military supply depot’.
The fifth word was - original
All students (40 people - 100%) answered that the noun in Russian and English coincides with its meaning, but 35 students (87.5%) know as an adjective in the meaning of 'original', 'genuine'.
And the last word was - atom
An international word was proposed, which coincides in the literal sense, but diverges in the possibilities of figurative use.
All 40 people (100%) translated this word as ‘atom’ but, not a single student knows figurative meaning of this word is ‘baby’, ‘baby’, as is sometimes the case in English. Speaking of little Paul Dombe, Dickens calls him ‘the atom’, this metaphor can be translated into Russian in one word – ‘baby’.
Based on the above, we can conclude:
1. Many international words differ not only in their external form, but also in their meaning.
About 19% of students do not know the main meaning of international words in English.
2. Questioning and subsequent conversation with students made it possible to replenish their vocabulary, deepen students' knowledge about the origin and meaning of many international words.
Therefore, this research work is of practical importance and is of great interest to students.
Conclusion
Having familiarized ourselves with the works of scientists available to us in the field of the history of the English language, dealing with the problems of language contacts and borrowings, we have identified such interesting fact that borrowings in English are striking not only in their number, but also in the variety of languages from which they are borrowed.
In the process of historical development, the English language has borrowed a huge amount of vocabulary from other languages. The most active donor languages are French (mechatronics, prince, people, money, parent, army, comfort, coach, etc.); Japanese (hara-kiri, sushi, karaoke, ikebana, samurai, geisha, kimono), currently Japanese is one of the leading donor languages; Latin (street, port, wine, mile, etc.); Dutch (dock, reef, yacht, rock, spool, landscape, etc.); Italian (sonata, umbrella, balcony, bank, macaroni, spaghetti, etc.); Spanish (banana, barbecue, bravado, canyon, chili, chocolate, potato, tomato, etc.); German (superman, homesickness, hamburger, delicatessen etc.); Russian (tzar, spetsnaz, limitchiki, glasnost, perestroika, etc.).
The vocabulary of the English language will also be replenished from other languages: happy, low, ill, ugly, weak, Viking (Scand.); haiduk, hussar (Hungarian); polka, mazurka (Polish); algebra, harem (arab.); psychology, alphabet, sympathy (Greek).
After conducting a thorough analysis of borrowed words in the English language, we can draw the following conclusions.
Firstly, foreign borrowings are one of the types of enrichment of the vocabulary of the English language.
Secondly, the vocabulary of the English language has absorbed a really huge number of words from the most diverse languages of the world, and the reason for such a huge number of borrowings and the variety of languages from which they are borrowed lies in the specifics of the historical development of England. This specificity lies in the fact that the English people were constantly in direct contact with many foreign-speaking peoples, first as a defeated people, later due to the transformation of England into a colonial power as a colonizing people. In addition, in a certain historical period in England acted on the position of functional languages different areas social activities Latin and French. Although the English language emerged victorious from the struggle with the languages of the conquerors, although it was forcibly implanted in the colonial countries, nevertheless, it could not help absorbing into its vocabulary many words from the languages with which it came into contact. It is these historical circumstances that explain such an abundance of borrowings in the language.
Thirdly, under the influence of borrowing, many of the original words fell out of use or changed their meaning. For example, the noun bar in French has the meaning of ‘bar’, ‘bolt’, and in English this word is translated as ‘bar’, ‘restaurant’, which has not acquired any meanings in French.
Borrowings are also interesting because they are able to reflect changes in the cultural and historical life of the country.
We live in a very unstable time, a time of change. These changes affect primarily the socio-political sphere of life. therefore, it can be assumed that to a greater extent words will be borrowed from this group. It remains to be hoped that these words will be with a positive connotation.
In conclusion, I would like to note that in our time, the leading position among European donor languages is retained by the French language.
The English language is traditionally open to borrowings from a variety of languages.
English adopted a large number of borrowings from the Scandinavian languages in the early Middle Ages (including such basic words as skin "skin", ill "sick" and even she "she"). The most massive stream of borrowings is medieval, after the Norman Conquest, from Old French; as a result, almost half of the English vocabulary has Romance roots. In modern times, a large number of learned Latinisms and new borrowings from continental languages entered the language.
Consider Celtic borrowings. Borrowings from the Celtic languages in English are not numerous, and in most cases refer to dialect vocabulary or to the vocabulary of the lower strata of the population. Of interest is the counting system of British sheep breeders, derived from the numerals of the extinct Cumbrian language. The syntactic tracing paper from the Celtic languages is, in its origin, the system of Continuous tenses, which is absent in other Germanic languages.
The first layer of Latin borrowings are words that got into English during trade contacts on the continent, for example: wine “wine”, pear “pear”, “pepper” pepper.
The second layer of Latin borrowings are words borrowed during Christianization: mass "mass", school "school", priest "priest", devil "devil" and others.
A significant number of Latin words entered the English language during the period of the 11th-13th centuries, during the period of the Normans. However, these words, in their majority, have already undergone, to a greater or lesser extent, phonetic, grammatical and semantic changes in the Norman dialect of French, which borrowed these words from Latin.
The largest number of words borrowed by English from Latin are the so-called book borrowings. These are words that have entered the language not as a result of direct, live communication between peoples, but through written documents, books, and so on. Book borrowings are qualitatively different from other types of borrowings. First of all, they are less subject to any kind of changes, especially semantic ones. It is logical to explain this by the fact that book borrowings, for a long period of time, are limited by the scope of their use - the literary form of a given language. Further, these borrowings are usually abstract, abstract or terminological in nature.
Most of the Latin book borrowings in English fall on the period of the 16th, as well as the 15th-16th centuries, that is, the Renaissance in England. There are over a thousand Latin words in the works of Wycliffe, Langland, and Chaucer that have not been previously attested in English. In the Renaissance, words from the field of medicine, literature, theology, technical terms and so on appear. A list of these words cannot be given within a short chapter. To do this, you need to create a special dictionary.
Most of these borrowings can be distinguished by morphological features, for example, verbs that have the suffix -ate- in the infinitive, formed from the past participle of Latin verbs of I conjugation, as separate, translate, meditate, exaggerate, congratulate; verbs with the suffix -ute- in the infinitive, obtained from the stem of the past participle of the group of Latin verbs of III conjugation, like prosecute, execute; adjectives formed from Latin present participles with stems in -ant- and -ent-, e.g. evident, transparent, patient, triumphant, apparent, obedient.
The following centuries - XVII, XVIII - witnessed book borrowings from the Latin language. In most cases, these are the so-called "learned words", often retaining the morphological features of Latin words, such as inertia, sanatorium, genus, radius, curriculum, datum, vacuum.
Finally, in modern English there are also such borrowings that have completely preserved their Latin appearance, that is, they have not undergone and are not currently undergoing any linguistic assimilation. These words and expressions are used in the language as a kind of quotation from the Latin language. The scope of their use is very limited: they are usually used in the styles of scientific prose, in business documents, in an elevated oratorical style of speech. These borrowings include such expressions as: alma mater, bona fide, ex officio, conditio sine qua non, and so on.
As noted in the previous chapter, in the process of borrowing words from one language to another, there are cases when the same word is borrowed twice. This is possible only in cases of long-term historical and cultural ties between peoples whose languages come into contact. Such is the history of the influence of Latin on English. Many Latin words appeared in English twice: once from French, another time from Latin itself. The second borrowing is usually removed from the first by a significant period of time necessary for the newly borrowed word to be considered as a new one. Etymological Franco-Latin doublets are obtained.
Some word-forming elements - prefixes and suffixes - should also be attributed to the number of Latin borrowings of a bookish nature. These derivational morphemes were not borrowed from Latin as independent lexical units; they were borrowed as part of whole words and only later comprehended as word-forming morphemes. However, in the linguistic literature they are called borrowed affixes.
Thus, the Latin language had a significant impact on the enrichment of the English language with new words. This is largely due to the fact that the Norman conquest of England, which brought with it a huge number of French words, set the stage for a relatively free influx of Latin words due to etymological relationship. In historical lexicology, it is sometimes difficult to determine whether a particular word has entered the English language from French or Latin.
Scandinavian borrowings also take place in the vocabulary of the English language. They came from Danish as a result of the Scandinavian conquest (from about 870). This group of borrowings is not very numerous, but it includes very frequent words. Here are some examples:
They, them instead of hie, hem (hem is preserved in colloquial expressions like I met "em yesterday);
Take, cut, get, instead of which English words would give in modern language *nim, *snide, *werth;
Are, fellow, gear, ill, happen, happy, husband, kick, law, leg, low, odd, rove, rug, scale, scalp, skill, skin, skip, skull, tight, ugly , wrong, etc.
Nay, fro, skirt, dike, sky, screech, for which the English parallels nay, from, shirt, ditch, welkin, shriek have been preserved;
Suffixes in toponymy: -by, -beck, -thorp(e), -fell, -toft, -thwaite from the Scandinavian words byr "village", bekkr "stream", thorp "village", fjall "mountain", topt "estate ", thveit "fenced area" and others; example names: Rugby, Welbeck, Scunthorpe, Micklefell, Lovestoft, Applethwaite;
Flock, mug, and a few others came through Anglo-Norman;
Nag, ombudsman, ski, skive, slalom, slam - words reflecting new realities for the English, came from modern Scandinavian languages in the 19th-20th centuries.
Scandinavian borrowings are difficult to distinguish from proper English words, since Danish and Old English were closely related languages. A characteristic difference is that in Danish words /k/, /g/, /sk/ were preserved, while in English they turned into hissing: /k/ and /g/ - under certain conditions, /sk/ - always.
French borrowings are the most numerous in English.
In 1066, England was conquered by the Normans. Normandy was a French duchy; it acquired its name after the French king Charles the Simple, being unable to cope with the Vikings, gave them this territory under the agreement of 912. By 1066, the Vikings had long adopted the French language and assimilated into the local population. They came to England as carriers of the French language (Norman dialect), French culture and the French feudal system. After the Norman Conquest, power was completely in the hands of the Normans; Duke William the Conqueror also deposed the English priests and replaced them with Norman ones. The indigenous population continued to speak English, but from the Norman dialect Anglo-Norman was formed, which became the state language and existed until the end of the 14th century. During this time, English learned a huge number of French words. Of the 80,000 most common words in the English language, approximately 22,500 are French borrowings (of all periods of history).
Especially clearly the borrowings reflect the Norman influence in the field of public administration, in military affairs, in the organization of the church and in urban life:
Court, servant, guard, prince, vassal, government, serf, village (yard, servant, guard, prince, vassal, government, serf, village);
Army, battle, banner, victory (army, battle, banner, victory);
Religion, chapel, prayer, to confess (religion, chapel, prayer, confess);
City, merchant (city, merchant).
Craftsmen who lived in the countryside retained English names, while the townsmen began to be called by French words: butcher "butcher", mason "mason", tailor "tailor". Animals are called English words, but their meat is French: beef "beef", mutton "mutton", pork "pork", veal "veal".
More than half of the words in the English language are of French origin as a result of the Norman Conquest (1066). It is curious that all the names of animals are originally English words, and the meat of these animals is French borrowings, for example: cow-beef (cow - beef), pig-pork (pig - pork), deer - venison (deer - venison), sheep - mutton (lamb sheep).
French borrowings in English are used, as a rule, to achieve greater formality, for example: commence instead of begin, to be content instead of to be glad.
The above words (you can add common ones to them, such as: composition, continue, frequency, etc.), being French borrowings, are pronounced in English. In this case, we are interested in those expressions that entered the English language without any changes, for example:
Bon appetit! (bon apeti") - Bon appetit!
Bon voyage! (bon voyage) - Bon voyage!
Carte blanche (carte blanche) - carte blanche, freedom of action.
Tete-a-tete (tete-a-tete) - tete-a-tete, alone.
Vis-a-Vis (vis-a-vis) - sitting opposite, interlocutor, face to face.
Resume (resume) - a short biography in the "resume" format.
RSVP - Respondez s "il vous plait (responde sil wu plait) - please answer, answer (in business correspondence).
The translator, encountering words and phrases of foreign origin in the English text, should refer to the English-English (explanatory) dictionary, where their explanation is given, or to the corresponding bilingual dictionary, for example:
Blitz krieg (German) - lightning war
Dolche vita (Italian) - sweet life
Buena vista (Spanish) - good view.
A large number of borrowings are found in American English due to the fact that the United States, as you know, is not in vain called the melting pot of nations.
Many place names in the United States are written and pronounced in Spanish, such as the cities of San Francisco, San Diego, La Jolla [la hoya], San Antonio, Sacramento, Rio Grande River, Rio Vista Street, etc. As we already know, these names are transmitted in Russian by sound reproduction, i.e., transcription, for example: Rio Vista street (and not “river view”).
A large number of Spanish words and expressions are used in the southwestern United States thanks to the cowboys who mastered these lands in the middle of the 19th century. Americans learned them from the inhabitants of Mexico: rodeo, ranch (Spanish - rancho), etc.
As a result of French colonization, such names appeared as the river Cache la Poudre (cash la powder) (“hide gunpowder”) in the state of Colorado, the city of Des Moines (Des Moines), the capital of Iowa (although in this case the pronunciation of the name of the city was not preserved entirely in French).
Words denoting Italian cuisine have also entered the English language (with Italian spelling and pronunciation), for example: lasagna (lasagne) ravioli (ravioli), pasta (pasta), spaghetti (spaghetti). The same can be said about the names of European dishes that appeared in English from the Yiddish language, for example, latkes (latkes) - potato pancakes, blintzes (blintses) - pancakes, gefilte fish (gefilte fish) - stuffed fish.
The list of borrowings in English could be continued.
The English language (both written and spoken) uses a large number of words, phrases and abbreviations from the Latin language.
Some Latinisms have entered the common vocabulary, for example: 5AM - at 5 o'clock in the morning or vice-versa - vice versa. Basically, Latin expressions are characteristic of the written form of the academic, official style. Therefore, they should be known to those who read English non-fiction or use English for academic purposes in writing.
Examples of Latinisms:
ad hoc - for the occasion
bona fide - frankly, sincerely
circa - approximately
cum laude - with honors
inter alia - among others
Thus, we can note that borrowed vocabulary occupies a significant place in the lexical system of any language, in particular English. In order to study the features of its functioning within a particular language system, it is advisable to pay considerable attention to the specifics of the arrival of this vocabulary in the language and the study of the conditions that led to the arrival of these borrowings.
It should be noted that borrowings in different languages affect the enrichment of the vocabulary in different ways. In some languages, they did not have such an impact that could significantly affect the vocabulary of the language. In other languages, borrowing in different historical epochs had such a significant impact on the vocabulary of the language that even function words, such as pronouns, prepositions, borrowed from other languages, replaced the original function words. Because a living language is a constantly evolving phenomenon. Something new comes, the unnecessary, superfluous disappears, and for scientists working in the field of lexicology, there are still many questions that need to be resolved.