MONGOLO-TATAR INVASION

The formation of the Mongolian state. At the beginning of the XIII century. in Central Asia on the territory from Baikal and the upper reaches of the Yenisei and Irtysh in the north to the southern regions of the Gobi and Velikaya Desert Wall of china the Mongolian state was formed. By the name of one of the tribes who roamed near Lake Buirnur in Mongolia, these peoples were also called Tatars. Subsequently, all the nomadic peoples with whom Russia was fighting were called Mongolo-Tatars.

The main occupation of the Mongols was extensive nomadic herding, and in the north and in the taiga regions - hunting. In the XII century. among the Mongols, primitive communal relations were disintegrating. Noyons (princes) - the nobility - emerged from among the rank-and-file cattle-breeders, who were called karachu - black people; having squads of nukers (warriors), she seized pastures for livestock and part of the young. The Noyons also had slaves. The rights of the noyons were determined by "Yasa" - a collection of teachings and instructions.

In 1206, a congress of the Mongol nobility - kurultai (Khural) - was held on the Onon River, at which one of the noyons was elected the leader of the Mongol tribes: Temuchin, who received the name Genghis Khan - "the great khan", "sent by God" (1206-1227). Having defeated his opponents, he began to rule the country through his relatives and local nobility.

Mongolian army. The Mongols had a well-organized army that maintained family ties. The army was divided into tens, hundreds, thousands. Ten thousand Mongol warriors were called "darkness" ("tumen").

Tumen were not only military, but also administrative units.

The main striking force of the Mongols was cavalry. Each warrior had two or three bows, several quivers with arrows, an ax, a rope lasso, and had a good command of a saber. The warrior's horse was covered with skins, which protected it from the arrows and weapons of the enemy. The head, neck and chest of the Mongol warrior were covered with an iron or copper helmet and a skin shell from enemy arrows and spears. The Mongolian cavalry was highly mobile. On their stunted hardy horses with a shaggy mane, they could walk up to 80 km per day, and with carts, battering and flamethrower guns - up to 10 km. Like other peoples, going through the stage of the formation of the state, the Mongols were distinguished by their strength and solidity. Hence the interest in expanding pastures and in organizing predatory campaigns against neighboring agricultural peoples, which were at a much higher level of development, although they were going through a period of fragmentation. This greatly facilitated the implementation of the conquest plans of the Mongol-Tatars.

Defeat of Central Asia. The Mongols began their campaigns with the conquest of the lands of their neighbors - Buryats, Evenks, Yakuts, Uighurs, Yenisei Kirghiz (by 1211). They then invaded China and took Beijing in 1215. Korea was conquered three years later. Having defeated China (finally conquered in 1279), the Mongols significantly increased their military potential. For armament were taken flamethrower, battering, stone-throwing guns, vehicles.

In the summer of 1219, an almost 200,000-strong Mongol army led by Genghis Khan began the conquest of Central Asia. The ruler of Khorezm (a country at the mouth of the Amu Darya), Shah Muhammad, did not accept the general battle, scattering his forces across the cities. Having suppressed the stubborn resistance of the population, the invaders took by storm Otrar, Khujand, Merv, Bukhara, Urgench and other cities. The ruler of Samarkand, despite the demand of the people to defend themselves, surrendered the city. Muhammad himself fled to Iran, where he soon died.

The rich, flourishing agricultural areas of Semirechye (Central Asia) turned into pastures. Irrigation systems built over the centuries were destroyed. The Mongols introduced a regime of brutal extortions, artisans were taken prisoner. As a result of the conquest of Central Asia by the Mongols, nomadic tribes began to inhabit its territory. Sedentary agriculture was supplanted by extensive nomadic cattle breeding, which slowed down the further development of Central Asia.

Invasion of Iran and Transcaucasia. The main force of the Mongols with the loot returned from Central Asia to Mongolia. An army of 30,000, commanded by the best Mongolian commanders Jebe and Subedei, set off on a long reconnaissance campaign across Iran and the Transcaucasus, to the West. Having defeated the united Armenian-Georgian troops and inflicted enormous damage on the economy of Transcaucasia, the invaders, however, were forced to leave the territory of Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, as they met with strong resistance from the population. Past Derbent, where there was a passage along the coast of the Caspian Sea, Mongolian troops entered the steppes of the North Caucasus. Here they defeated the Alans (Ossetians) and Polovtsians, after which they ravaged the city of Sudak (Surozh) in the Crimea. The Polovtsi, led by Khan Kotyan, the father-in-law of the Galician prince Mstislav the Bold, turned to the Russian princes for help.

Battle on the Kalka River. On May 31, 1223, the Mongols defeated the allied forces of the Polovtsian and Russian princes in the Azov steppes on the Kalka River. This was the last major joint military action of the Russian princes on the eve of the invasion of Batu. However, the powerful Russian prince Yuri Vsevolodovich Vladimir-Suzdal, the son of Vsevolod the Big Nest, did not participate in the campaign.

The princely feuds also affected the battle on Kalka. The Kiev prince Mstislav Romanovich, entrenched with his army on the hill, did not take part in the battle. The regiments of Russian soldiers and Polovtsy, crossing the Kalka, struck at the vanguard detachments of the Mongol-Tatars, who retreated. Russian and Polovtsian regiments were carried away by the pursuit. The approaching main Mongol forces took the pursuing Russian and Polovtsian soldiers in ticks and destroyed.

The Mongols laid siege to the hill where the Kiev prince fortified. On the third day of the siege, Mstislav Romanovich believed the enemy's promise to release the Russians with honor in the event of a voluntary surrender and laid down his arms. He and his warriors were brutally killed by the Mongols. The Mongols reached the Dnieper, but did not dare to enter the borders of Russia. Russia did not yet know a defeat equal to the battle on the Kalka River. Only a tenth of the army returned to Russia from the Azov steppes. In honor of their victory, the Mongols held a "feast on the bones." The captured princes were crushed with planks on which the victors sat and feasted.

Preparation of the campaign to Russia. Returning to the steppes, the Mongols made an unsuccessful attempt to seize the Volga Bulgaria. Reconnaissance in force showed that it is possible to wage wars of conquest with Russia and its neighbors only by organizing an all-Mongol campaign. At the head of this campaign was Genghis Khan's grandson Baty (1227-1255), who inherited from his grandfather all the territories in the west, "where the Mongolian horse will set foot." His main military adviser was Subedei, who knew well the theater of future hostilities.

In 1235, at the Khural in the capital of Mongolia, Karakorum, a decision was made about an all-Mongol campaign to the West. In 1236 the Mongols captured the Volga Bulgaria, and in 1237 they subdued the nomadic peoples of the Steppe. In the fall of 1237, the main forces of the Mongols, having crossed the Volga, concentrated on the Voronezh River, aiming at the Russian lands. In Russia they knew about the impending menacing danger, but the princely feuds prevented them from uniting the vultures to repel a strong and insidious enemy. There was no single command. Fortifications of cities were erected for defense from neighboring Russian principalities, and not from steppe nomads. The princely equestrian squads were not inferior to the Mongol noyons and nukers in armament and fighting qualities. But the bulk of the Russian army was made up of the militia - urban and rural warriors, inferior to the Mongols in weapons and combat skills. Hence the defensive tactics designed to deplete the enemy's forces.

Defense of Ryazan. In 1237 Ryazan was the first of the Russian lands to be attacked by invaders. Vladimirsky and Chernigov princes Ryazan refused to help. The Mongols laid siege to Ryazan and sent ambassadors, who demanded obedience and one tenth of "everything." A courageous answer from the Ryazan people followed: "If we are not all there, then everything will be yours." On the sixth day of the siege, the city was taken, the prince's family and the surviving inhabitants were killed. In the old place, Ryazan was no longer revived (modern Ryazan is new town, located 60 km from the old Ryazan, it used to be called Pereyaslavl Ryazan).

Conquest of North-Eastern Russia. In January 1238, the Mongols moved along the Oka River to the Vladimir-Suzdal land. The battle with the Vladimir-Suzdal army took place near the city of Kolomna, on the border of the Ryazan and Vladimir-Suzdal lands. In this battle, the Vladimir army perished, which actually predetermined the fate of North-Eastern Russia.

The population of Moscow, led by the voivode Philip Nyanka, put up strong resistance to the enemy for 5 days. After the capture by the Mongols, Moscow was burned, and its inhabitants were killed.

On February 4, 1238, Batu was besieged by Vladimir. The distance from Kolomna to Vladimir (300 km), his troops covered in a month. On the fourth day of the siege, the invaders broke into the city through the gaps in the fortress wall near the Golden Gate. The princely family and the remnants of the troops closed in the Assumption Cathedral. The Mongols surrounded the cathedral with trees and set it on fire.

After the capture of Vladimir, the Mongols broke up into separate detachments and destroyed the cities of North-Eastern Russia. Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich, even before the invaders approached Vladimir, went to the north of his land to gather military forces. The hastily assembled regiments in 1238 were defeated on the Sit River (the right tributary of the Mologa River), and Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich himself was killed in the battle.

Mongol hordes moved to the northwest of Russia. Everywhere they met stubborn resistance from the Russians. For two weeks, for example, the distant suburb of Novgorod - Torzhok, defended itself. Northwestern Russia was saved from defeat, although it paid tribute.

Having reached the stone Ignach-cross, an ancient sign-pointer on the Valdai watershed (one hundred kilometers from Novgorod), the Mongols retreated south into the steppe to recover losses and give rest to the tired troops. The retreat was in the nature of a "round-up". Having divided into separate detachments, the invaders "combed" the Russian cities. Smolensk managed to fight back, other centers were defeated. Kozelsk, which held out for seven weeks, showed the greatest resistance to the Mongols during the "round-up" period. The Mongols called Kozelsk "an evil city".

Capture of Kiev. In the spring of 1239 Batu defeated South Russia (Pereyaslavl South), in the fall - the Chernigov principality. In the fall of the next 1240, the Mongol troops, having crossed the Dnieper, besieged Kiev. After a long defense led by voivode Dmitr, the Tatars defeated Kiev. In the next 1241 the Galicia-Volyn principality was attacked.

Batu's hike to Europe. After the defeat of Russia, the Mongol hordes moved to Europe. Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and the Balkan countries were devastated. The Mongols reached the borders of the German Empire, reached the Adriatic Sea. However, at the end of 1242, they suffered a series of setbacks in Bohemia and Hungary. From the distant Karakorum came the news of the death of the great khan Ogedei, the son of Genghis Khan. It was a convenient excuse to end the difficult hike. Batu turned his troops back east.

The decisive world-historical role in saving European civilization from the Mongol hordes was played by the heroic struggle against them by the Russian and other peoples of our country, who took the first blow from the invaders. The best part of the Mongol army perished in fierce battles in Russia. The Mongols lost their offensive power. They could not but reckon with the liberation struggle unfolding in the rear of their troops. A.S. Pushkin rightly wrote: "Russia was assigned a great destiny: its boundless plains absorbed the power of the Mongols and stopped their invasion at the very edge of Europe ... the enlightenment that was being formed was saved by torn to pieces by Russia."

Fight against the aggression of the crusaders. The coast from the Vistula to the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea was inhabited by Slavic, Baltic (Lithuanian and Latvian) and Finno-Ugric (Estonian, Karelian, etc.) tribes. At the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII centuries. among the peoples of the Baltic states, the process of decomposition of the primitive communal system and the formation of an early class society and statehood is coming to an end. These processes were most intense among the Lithuanian tribes. The Russian lands (Novgorod and Polotsk) exerted a significant influence on their western neighbors, which did not yet have developed their own statehood and church institutions (the peoples of the Baltic were pagans).

The attack on the Russian lands was part of the predatory doctrine of the German knighthood "Drang nach Osten" (onslaught on the East). In the XII century. it began the seizure of the lands belonging to the Slavs beyond the Oder and in the Baltic Pomerania. At the same time, an offensive was carried out on the lands of the Baltic peoples. The invasion of the Baltic States and North-Western Russia by the Crusaders was sanctioned by the Pope and German Emperor Frederick P. Germanic, Danish, Norwegian knights and troops from other northern European countries also took part in the crusade.

Knightly orders. For the conquest of the lands of the Estonians and Latvians from the detachments of the crusaders defeated in Asia Minor, the knightly Order of the Swordsmen was created in 1202. Knights wore clothes with a sword and a cross. They pursued an aggressive policy under the slogan of Christianization: "He who does not want to be baptized must die." Back in 1201, the knights landed at the mouth of the Western Dvina (Daugava) River and founded the city of Riga on the site of a Latvian settlement as a stronghold for subjugating the Baltic lands. In 1219, Danish knights captured part of the Baltic coast, founding the city of Revel (Tallinn) on the site of an Estonian settlement.

In 1224 the crusaders took Yuriev (Tartu). The knights of the Teutonic Order, founded in 1198 in Syria during the Crusades, arrived to conquer the lands of Lithuania (Prussians) and the southern Russian lands in 1226. Knights - members of the order wore white cloaks with a black cross on their left shoulder. In 1234 the Swordsmen were defeated by the Novgorod-Suzdal troops, and two years later - by the Lithuanians and Semigallians. This forced the crusaders to join forces. In 1237, the Swordsmen united with the Teutons, forming a branch of the Teutonic Order - the Livonian Order, named after the territory inhabited by the Livonian tribe, which was captured by the crusaders.

Battle of the Neva. The offensive of the knights especially intensified in connection with the weakening of Russia, which was bleeding to death in the struggle against the Mongol conquerors.

In July 1240 the Swedish feudal lords tried to take advantage of the difficult situation in Russia. The Swedish fleet with an army on board entered the mouth of the Neva. Having ascended the Neva to the confluence of the Izhora River, the knightly cavalry landed on the shore. The Swedes wanted to capture the city of Staraya Ladoga, and then Novgorod.

Prince Alexander Yaroslavich, who was 20 years old at the time, rushed with his retinue to the landing site. "We are few," he turned to his soldiers, "but God is not in power, but in truth." Hidden approaching the Swedes' camp, Alexander and his warriors struck at them, and a small militia led by Misha from Novgorod cut off the path for the Swedes by which they could flee to their ships.

For the victory on the Neva the Russian people called Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky. The significance of this victory lies in the fact that it stopped the Swedish aggression to the east for a long time, and kept the access to the Baltic coast for Russia. (Peter I, emphasizing the right of Russia to the Baltic coast, founded the Alexander Nevsky Monastery in the new capital on the site of the battle.)

Battle on the Ice. In the summer of the same 1240 the Livonian Order, as well as Danish and German knights attacked Russia and captured the city of Izborsk. Soon, due to the betrayal of the mayor Tverdila and part of the boyars, Pskov was taken (1241). Strife and strife led to the fact that Novgorod did not help its neighbors. And the struggle between the boyars and the prince in Novgorod itself ended with the expulsion of Alexander Nevsky from the city. Under these conditions, individual detachments of the crusaders found themselves 30 km from the walls of Novgorod. At the request of the veche, Alexander Nevsky returned to the city.

Together with his retinue, Alexander with a sudden blow liberated Pskov, Izborsk and other captured cities. Having received the news that the main forces of the Order were marching on him, Alexander Nevsky blocked the way for the knights, placing his troops on the ice of Lake Peipsi. The Russian prince showed himself to be an outstanding commander. The chronicler wrote about him: "We conquer everywhere, and we will not conquer Nicholas." Alexander deployed troops under cover of the steep bank on the ice of the lake, excluding the possibility of enemy reconnaissance of his forces and depriving the enemy of freedom of maneuver. Taking into account the construction of the knights "pig" (in the form of a trapezoid with a sharp wedge in front, which was made up of heavily armed cavalry), Alexander Nevsky arranged his regiments in the form of a triangle, with a point resting on the shore. Before the battle, some of the Russian soldiers were equipped with special hooks to pull the knights off their horses.

On April 5, 1242, a battle took place on the ice of Lake Peipsi, which was called the Battle of Ice. The knight's wedge pierced the center of the Russian position and buried itself on the shore. The flanking attacks of the Russian regiments decided the outcome of the battle: like ticks, they crushed the knightly "pig". The knights, unable to withstand the blow, fled in panic. The Novgorodians drove them seven miles across the ice, which by spring in many places had become weak and fell through under heavily armed soldiers. The Russians pursued the enemy, "whipping, carrying after him, as if through the air," the chronicler wrote. According to the Novgorod Chronicle, "400 Germans perished in the battle, and 50 were taken prisoner" (German chronicles estimate the death toll at 25 knights). The captive knights were led in disgrace through the streets of the Lord of Veliky Novgorod.

The significance of this victory lies in the fact that the military power of the Livonian Order was weakened. The response to the Battle of the Ice was the growth of the liberation struggle in the Baltics. However, relying on the help of the Roman Catholic Church, the knights at the end of the XIII century. captured a significant part of the Baltic lands.

Russian lands ruled by the Golden Horde. In the middle of the XIII century. one of the grandsons of Genghis Khan, Khubulai, moved his headquarters to Beijing, founding the Yuan dynasty. The rest of the Mongol state was nominally subordinate to the great khan in Karakorum. One of the sons of Genghis Khan - Chagatay (Jagatay) received the lands of most of Central Asia, and the grandson of Genghis Khan Zulagu owned the territory of Iran, part of Western and Central Asia and Transcaucasia. This ulus, allocated in 1265, is called the state of the Hulaguids by the name of the dynasty. Another grandson of Genghis Khan from his eldest son Jochi, Batu, founded the state of the Golden Horde.

Golden Horde. The Golden Horde covered a vast territory from the Danube to the Irtysh (Crimea, the North Caucasus, part of the lands of Russia located in the steppe, the former lands of Volga Bulgaria and nomadic peoples, Western Siberia and part of Central Asia). The capital of the Golden Horde was the city of Sarai, located in the lower reaches of the Volga (a barn in Russian means a palace). It was a state consisting of semi-independent uluses united under the rule of the khan. They were ruled by the Batu brothers and the local aristocracy.

The role of a kind of aristocratic council was played by the "Divan", where military and financial issues were resolved. Having found themselves surrounded by the Turkic-speaking population, the Mongols adopted the Turkic language. The local Turkic-speaking ethnos assimilated the Mongol aliens. A new people, the Tatars, was formed. In the first decades of the existence of the Golden Horde, its religion was paganism.

The Golden Horde was one of the largest states of its time. At the beginning of the XIV century, she could put up a 300 thousand army. The Golden Horde flourished during the reign of Khan Uzbek (1312-1342). In this era (1312) Islam became the state religion of the Golden Horde. Then, like other medieval states, the Horde experienced a period of fragmentation. Already in the XIV century. the Central Asian possessions of the Golden Horde were separated, and in the 15th century. the Kazan (1438), Crimean (1443), Astrakhan (mid-15th century) and Siberian (late 15th century) khanates emerged.

Russian lands and the Golden Horde. The Russian lands devastated by the Mongols were forced to recognize their vassal dependence on the Golden Horde. The unceasing struggle that the Russian people waged against the invaders forced the Mongol-Tatars to abandon the creation of their own administrative bodies of power in Russia. Rus retained its statehood. This was facilitated by the presence in Russia of its own administration and church organization. In addition, the lands of Russia were unsuitable for nomadic cattle breeding, in contrast, for example, from Central Asia, the Caspian region, the Black Sea region.

In 1243, Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (1238-1246), the brother of the great Vladimir prince of Vladimir Yuri, who was killed on the Sit River, was drafted into the headquarters of the khan. Yaroslav recognized his vassal dependence on the Golden Horde and received a label (letter) for the great reign of Vladimir and a golden plaque ("paizu"), a kind of pass through the Horde territory. Other princes followed him to the Horde.

To control the Russian lands, the institution of governors-Baskaks was created - the leaders of the military detachments of the Mongol-Tatars, who monitored the activities of the Russian princes. The denunciation of the Baskaks to the Horde inevitably ended either with the summons of the prince to Sarai (he often lost his label, or even his life), or with a punitive campaign into the rebellious land. Suffice it to say that only in the last quarter of the XIII century. 14 such trips to the Russian lands were organized.

Some Russian princes, striving to get rid of their vassal dependence on the Horde as soon as possible, took the path of open armed resistance. However, the forces to overthrow the power of the invaders were still not enough. So, for example, in 1252 the regiments of the Vladimir and Galicia-Volyn princes were defeated. This was well understood by Alexander Nevsky, from 1252 to 1263 the Grand Duke of Vladimir. He embarked on a course for the restoration and recovery of the economy of the Russian lands. The policy of Alexander Nevsky was also supported by the Russian Church, which saw a great danger in the Catholic expansion, and not in the tolerant rulers of the Golden Horde.

In 1257, the Mongol-Tatars undertook a population census - "record number". Besermens (Muslim merchants) were sent to the cities, and tribute was paid at the expense of the horse. The amount of tribute ("exit") was very large, only one "tsar's tribute", i.e. tribute to the khan, which was first collected in kind, and then in money, amounted to 1300 kg of silver per year. The constant tribute was supplemented by "requests" - one-time levies in favor of the khan. In addition, the khan's treasury received deductions from trade duties, taxes to "feed" the khan's officials, and so on. In total, there were 14 types of tributes in favor of the Tatars. Population census in the 50-60s of the XIII century. marked by numerous uprisings of the Russian people against the Baskaks, khan ambassadors, tribute collectors, scribes. In 1262, the inhabitants of Rostov, Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Suzdal, Ustyug dealt with the collectors of tribute, the besermen. This led to the fact that the collection of tribute from the end of the XIII century. was transferred into the hands of the Russian princes.

Consequences of the Mongol conquest and the Golden Horde yoke for Russia. The Mongol invasion and the Golden Horde yoke became one of the reasons for the lag of the Russian lands behind the developed countries of Western Europe. Great damage was done to the economic, political and cultural development of Rus. Tens of thousands of people died in battles or were driven into slavery. A significant part of the income in the form of tribute went to the Horde.

The old agricultural centers and the once developed territories were deserted and fell into decay. The border of agriculture moved to the north, the southern fertile soils were called "Wild Field". Russian cities were subjected to massive devastation and destruction. Simplified, and sometimes disappeared, many crafts, which impeded the creation of small-scale production and ultimately retarded economic development.

The Mongol conquest preserved political fragmentation. It weakened the ties between various parts the state. Traditional political and trade ties with other countries were disrupted. The vector of Russian foreign policy, which ran along the "south - north" line (the fight against the nomadic danger, stable ties with Byzantium and through the Baltic with Europe), radically changed its direction to "west - east". The rate of cultural development of the Russian lands slowed down.

What you need to know about these topics:

Archaeological, linguistic and written evidence of the Slavs.

Tribal unions of the Eastern Slavs in the VI-IX centuries. Territory. Classes. "The Way from the Varangians to the Greeks". Social system. Paganism. The prince and the squad. Hiking to Byzantium.

Internal and external factors, who prepared the emergence of statehood among the Eastern Slavs.

Socio-economic development. Formation of feudal relations.

Early feudal monarchy of Rurikovich. "Norman theory", its political meaning. Organization of management. Domestic and foreign policy of the first Kiev princes (Oleg, Igor, Olga, Svyatoslav).

The flourishing of the Kiev state under Vladimir I and Yaroslav the Wise. Completion of the unification of the Eastern Slavs around Kiev. Border defense.

Legends about the spread of Christianity in Russia. Adoption of Christianity as a state religion. The Russian Church and its role in the life of the Kiev state. Christianity and paganism.

"Russian Truth". Approval of feudal relations. Organization of the ruling class. Princely and boyar estates. Feudal-dependent population, its categories. Serfdom. Peasant communities. City.

The struggle between the sons and descendants of Yaroslav the Wise for the grand-ducal power. Fragmentation tendencies. Lyubech Congress of Princes.

Kievan Rus in the system of international relations of the 11th - early 12th centuries Polovtsian danger. Princely strife. Vladimir Monomakh. The final collapse of the Kiev state at the beginning of the XII century.

Culture of Kievan Rus. Cultural heritage of the Eastern Slavs. Folklore. Epics. The origin of Slavic writing. Cyril and Methodius. The beginning of chronicle writing. "The Tale of Bygone Years". Literature. Education in Kievan Rus. Birch bark letters. Architecture. Painting (frescoes, mosaics, icon painting).

Economic and political reasons for the feudal fragmentation of Russia.

Feudal land tenure. Urban development. Princely power and boyars. Political system in various Russian lands and principalities.

The largest political formations in the territory of Russia. Rostov- (Vladimir) -Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn principality, Novgorod boyar republic. Socio-economic and internal political development of principalities and lands on the eve of the Mongol invasion.

The international position of the Russian lands. Political and cultural ties between the Russian lands. Feudal strife. Dealing with external danger.

The rise of culture in the Russian lands in the XII-XIII centuries. The idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land in cultural works. "A word about Igor's regiment".

Formation of the early feudal Mongolian state. Genghis Khan and the unification of the Mongol tribes. The conquest by the Mongols of the lands of neighboring peoples, northeastern China, Korea, Central Asia. Invasion of Transcaucasia and South Russian steppes. Battle on the Kalka River.

Batu's hikes.

Invasion of North-Eastern Russia. Defeat of southern and southwestern Russia. Batu's expeditions to Central Europe. The struggle of Russia for independence and its historical significance.

Aggression of German feudal lords in the Baltic States. Livonian Order. The defeat of the Swedish troops on the Neva and the German knights in the Battle of the Ice. Alexander Nevskiy.

Formation of the Golden Horde. Socio-economic and political system. Control system of the conquered lands. The struggle of the Russian people against the Golden Horde. Consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion and the Golden Horde yoke for the further development of our country.

The inhibiting effect of the Mongol-Tatar conquest on the development of Russian culture. Destruction and destruction of cultural property. Weakening of traditional ties with Byzantium and other Christian countries. Decline of crafts and arts. Oral folk art as a reflection of the struggle against the invaders.

• Sakharov A. N., Buganov V. I. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century.

How and why did Russia come under the rule of the Mongol khans?

You can perceive in different ways what we are considering historical period, to assess the causal relationship of the actions of the Mongols. The facts remain unchanged that the Mongol raid on Russia took place and that the Russian princes, despite the heroism of the defenders of the cities, could not or did not want to see sufficient reasons for eliminating internal disagreements, unification and elementary mutual assistance. This did not allow to repulse the Mongol army and Russia fell under the rule of the Mongol khans.

What was the main goal of the Mongol conquests?

It is believed that the main goal of the Mongol conquests is to conquer all the "evening countries" up to the "last sea". This was the testament of Genghis Khan. However, Batu's campaign against Russia is most likely more correctly called a raid. The Mongols did not leave garrisons, they did not intend to establish permanent power. Destroyed were those cities that refused to make peace with the Mongols and began armed resistance. There were cities like Uglich that bought off the Mongols. Kozelsk can be considered an exception; the Mongols dealt with it, in revenge for the murder of their ambassadors. In fact, the entire western campaign of the Mongols was a large-scale cavalry raid, and the invasion of Russia was a raid with the aim of plundering, replenishing resources, and subsequently establishing dependence on the payment of tribute.

What principalities existed in Russia at the beginning of the 13th century?

Galician, Volyn, Kiev, Turovo-Pinsk, Polotsk, Pereyaslavl, Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversk, Smolensk, Novgorod, Ryazan, Murom, Vladimir-Suzdal princedoms.

Imagine why Batu made his trip to North-Eastern Russia in winter

The attack on Russia was not unexpected. The bordering Russian principalities knew about the impending invasion. From the fall of 1237, Mongolian troops were grouped along the borders. I think that the Mongols were waiting for a connection with the units that fought with the Polovtsy and Alans, as well as for the land, rivers and swamps to freeze with the onset of the coming winter, after which it would be easy for the Tatars to plunder all of Russia.

Find out what peoples then lived in the North Caucasus

During the historical period we are considering, the Western Caucasus was inhabited mainly by the Adygs, to the east of them Alans (wasps, Ossetians), then the ancestors of the Weinakhs, about whom there is almost no real news, and then various Dagestan peoples (Lezgins, Avars, Laks, Dargins, etc. .). The ethnic map of the foothills and partly of the mountainous regions changed also until the 13th century: with the arrival of the Turko-Polovtsians, and even earlier the Khazars and Bulgars, part of the local population, merging with them, became the basis for such peoples as the Karachais, Balkars, and Kumyks.

Why do you think the Mongols failed to fulfill the will of Genghis Khan?

The testament of Genghis Khan was to conquer all the "evening countries" up to the "last sea". But was Batu's invasion of Europe for the sake of fulfilling this will? Maybe yes, maybe no. The main enemy of the Mongols in the west were the Polovtsians. This is evidenced by the long history of relations between these nomadic peoples. It was precisely in pursuit of the Polovtsians who had retreated to Hungary that the Mongols moved further through Galicia, seeking to establish the inviolable western border of their state. First, their ambassadors visited Poland, but were killed by the Poles. Therefore, according to nomadic laws, another war was inevitable. The Mongols passed Poland, Hungary, and were defeated near Olomouc in the Czech Republic, although today this victory of the Czechs is considered fiction. The great western campaign was over when Batu's troops reached the Adriatic Sea in 1242. The Mongols ensured the security of their western border, because neither the Czechs, nor the Poles, nor the Hungarians could reach Mongolia: for this they had neither the desire nor the possibilities. The original enemies of the Mongol ulus - the Polovtsians - could not threaten him either: they were driven into Hungary, and their fate turned out to be sad. In addition, the great Khan Ogedei died at this time, which radically changed the situation in the Horde of Batu Khan.

According to another version, it is believed that it was the campaign against Russia that weakened the forces of the Mongol invasion of Europe, and they simply could not fulfill the will of Genghis Khan.

Questions and tasks for working with the text of the paragraph

1. Make in a notebook a chronological table of the main events associated with Batu's campaigns against Russia.

Batu's first campaign against Russia (1237-1239)

the date	Direction	Outcomes
December 1237	Ryazan principality	For five days the defenders of Ryazan fought off the attacks of the Mongols. On the sixth day, the enemies broke through the walls with battering rams, broke into the city, set it on fire and killed all the inhabitants.
Winter 1237	Kolomna	The victory was on the side of Batu. The road to the Vladimir-Suzdal land was opened for the Mongols.
February 1238	Vladimir	After a three-day siege, the Mongols broke into the city and set it on fire.
March 1238	Sit River on the border of Vladimir-Suzdal and Novgorod lands	The defeat of the squad of the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich. Death of the prince
February-March 1238	North-Eastern Russia	Batu divided the army, "dismissed a round-up" in North-Eastern Russia. Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Tver, Torzhok, Kozelsk were taken and plundered.

Batu's second campaign against Russia (1239-1241)

2. Where did the conquerors meet the fiercest resistance?

Kiev, Kozelsk, Torzhok, Kolomna, Ryazan, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky

3. What were the results of Batu's campaigns on the Russian lands?

As a result of the invasion, a significant part of the population of Russia perished. Kiev, Vladimir, Suzdal, Ryazan, Tver, Chernigov, and many other cities were destroyed. The exception was Veliky Novgorod, Pskov, as well as the cities of the Smolensk, Polotsk and Turovo-Pinsk principalities. The developed urban culture of Ancient Rus suffered significant damage.

4. What consequences did Batu's invasion have for the Russian lands?

The blow inflicted on the Russian lands in the middle of the 13th century by the Mongol hordes seriously influenced their development. Most of the Russian lands were completely devastated and fell into dependence on foreign power.

In its socio-economic development, Russia was significantly thrown back. For several decades, stone construction practically ceased in Russian cities. Gone are complex crafts, such as the production of glass jewelry, cloisonné enamel, niello, grain, and polychrome glazed ceramics. The southern Russian lands have lost almost the entire sedentary population. The surviving population went to the forest northeast, concentrating in the interfluve of the Northern Volga and the Oka, where there were poorer soils and a colder climate than in the southern completely devastated regions of Russia.

Also, Kiev ceased to be the subject of a struggle between various branches of the Rurikovichs and the center of the struggle against the steppe, the institution of "communions in the Russian land" disappeared, since the Mongol khans began to control the fate of Kiev.

5. What, in your opinion, are the main reasons for the victories of Batu's troops?

• Mongol tactics. Pronounced offensive character. They sought to inflict swift blows at the enemy taken by surprise, to disorganize and disunite his ranks. They, whenever possible, avoided large frontal battles, smashing the enemy in parts, exhausting him with continuous skirmishes and surprise attacks. For battle, the Mongols formed in several lines, having heavy cavalry in reserve, and in the front ranks - formations of conquered peoples and light detachments. The battle began with throwing arrows, with which the Mongols sought to confuse the enemy's ranks. They strove to break through the enemy's front with surprise strikes, divide it into parts, widely using flanking, flanking and rear strikes.
• Armament and military technology. Composite bow, nailing armor from 300-750 steps, battering and stone throwing machines, catapults, ballistas and 44 types of fire attack weapons, cast iron bombs with powder filling, double-jet flamethrower, poison gases, technologies for storing food in dry form, etc. Almost all of this, as well as intelligence techniques, the Mongols took from the Chinese.
• Continuous leadership of the battle. Khans, temniks and thousanders did not fight together with ordinary soldiers, but were behind the formation, on high places, directing the movement of troops with flags, light and smoke signals, corresponding to the signals of pipes and drums.
• Intelligence and diplomacy. The Mongol invasion was usually preceded by careful reconnaissance and diplomatic training aimed at isolating the enemy and stirring up internal strife. Then there was a hidden concentration of Mongolian troops at the border. The invasion usually began from different directions by separate detachments, heading, as a rule, to one previously designated point. First of all, the Mongols sought to destroy the enemy's manpower and prevent him from replenishing the troops. They penetrated deep into the earth, destroying everything in their path, exterminating the population and driving away herds.

We work with the map

Show on the map the directions of Batu's campaigns and the cities that offered especially fierce resistance to the conquerors.

Border of Russian lands marked with a green line

Directions of movement of Mongolian troops indicated by purple arrows

Cities marked with red dots with blue rims showed the most resistance Mongol conquerors. These are: Vladimir, Pereyaslavl, Torzhok, Moscow, Ryazan, Kozelsk, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Kiev, Galich, Pereyaslavl, Vladimir-Volynsky.

Cities marked with red dots were burned: Murom, Vladimir, Suzdal, Yuryev, Pereyaslavl, Kostroma, Galich, Tver, Torzhok, Volok-Lamsky, Moscow, Kolomna, Pereyaslavl-Ryazansky, Ryazan, Kozelsk, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Kiev, Galich, Pereyaslavl, Vladimir-Volynsky.

Examining the document

1. Using the text of the paragraph and the document, prepare a story about the struggle of the defenders of Russian cities with the conquerors.

"Batu came to Kiev with a heavy force, with a great many of his strength, and surrounded the city, and the Tatar force besieged (the city)." This is how the chronicle text about the siege and storming of Kiev by the Mongol conquerors begins. Let's try to describe the siege of Kiev, based on the Ipatiev Chronicle and other historical sources. It is worth noting that in Russia, despite the Mongol invasion, the struggle of the princes for power did not stop, which turned into a great tragedy for the entire Russian people. The princes in Kiev replaced one another. The powerful Galician prince Daniel Romanovich, having expelled the Smolensk prince Rostislav from Kiev, instructed his voivode Dmitry to defend Kiev from the Mongols, and he himself returned to his principality, where, judging by the available sources, he was not particularly prepared to repel the conquerors.

In the summer of 1240, the Mongols completed their preparations for big hike, whose goal was the conquest of Western Europe. The losses they suffered in the battles with the Volga Bulgarians, Mordovians, Polovtsians, Alans, Circassians, Rusichs, were made up for with fresh forces arriving from the east, as well as units recruited among the conquered peoples. The question of the number of Batu's troops in this campaign is controversial; modern researchers call numbers from 40 to 120 thousand.

The first big city on the path of the conquerors was Kiev, then the largest city in Eastern Europe with a population of 40-50 thousand people. The fortifications of Kiev were unmatched in Eastern Europe. But they were built in the X-XI centuries, in an era when the fortresses were taken either by a sudden raid, or by a long passive siege. Kiev fortifications were not designed to resist an assault with the use of siege vehicles. In addition, Kiev had very few defenders. Prince Daniel left only a small part of the squad to defend Kiev. If all the combat-ready men, plus the boyar squads, also took up arms, then there would be five to ten thousand defenders. Against several tumens of the Mongol army with siege weapons, this was an insignificant number. Most of the people of Kiev had only spears and axes. As a weapon, in the ability to wield it, in organization and discipline, they certainly lost to the Mongols, as the militia of the professional army always loses.

The chronicle testifies that the townspeople were actively defending themselves. For about three months the Mongols exhausted the Kievites with a siege and prepared for the assault. The chronicle names the area chosen for the strike: "Batu put vices against the city fortifications near the Lyadsky gates, because here (close to the city) wilds (ravines, rugged terrain) approached". This site was chosen because there were no steep natural slopes in front of the fortifications. After the walls were destroyed by vices, the attack began. When the assailants climbed the rampart, fierce hand-to-hand fighting boiled in the gap. Voivode Dmitr was wounded in this battle.

Finally, the besieged were driven from the rampart. The Kievans, taking advantage of the respite, retreated to Detinets and overnight organized a new line of defense around the Church of the Holy Mother of God. The second and last day of the assault came. “And the next day (the Tatars) came to them, and there was a great battle between them. In the meantime, people ran out to the church, and to the church vaults with their belongings, and the walls of the church fell down with them from the weight, and so the city was taken by (Tatar) soldiers. "

The Ipatiev Chronicle does not speak directly about the destruction of Kiev and the mass death of its inhabitants, but another chronicle, Suzdal, reports: “The Tatars took Kiev, and St. young and old were killed with a sword. " The fact of the "great slaughter" is confirmed by archaeological excavations. In Kiev, the remains of burnt houses of the 13th century were investigated, in which the skeletons of people of different ages and sex lay, with traces of blows from sabers, spears and arrows. On the site of one of these mass graves, near the eastern wall of the Tithe Church, a gray granite cross has been erected in our time. This is the only monument in Kiev that reminds of those tragic events.

2. Formulate the main idea of ​​the document.

3. What kind of weapons does the document refer to?

The document speaks of vices - stone-throwing guns, with the help of which the Mongols destroyed the fortifications of cities.

Thinking, comparing, reflecting

1. AS Pushkin wrote that Western Europe was saved by "torn apart and dying of Russia." Explain the words of the poet.

I believe that Pushkin believed that the Mongol troops were bled out of blood during the invasion of Russia, and this did not allow them to completely capture Europe. Many historians consider this position to be erroneous. There are several reasons for this opinion. Before the campaign in Europe, the Mongols left North-Eastern Russia and replenished their troops. Their path to Europe passed along the southern borders of Russia, which were already weakened by internecine wars. Only Kiev offered serious resistance to the horde. The goals of the Mongols in the Western campaign are also being questioned. Perhaps they were not going to fulfill Genghis Khan's behest at all costs, but simply ensured the security of their western borders. The end of Batu's campaign, which reached the Adriatic Sea, is also associated not so much with the weakening of the army, although it was defeated at Olomouc in Bohemia, as with the death of the Great Khan Ogedei and the beginning of an internal struggle in the Horde itself. To guess whether the Mongol horde would have had enough strength to fight the states of Western Europe means to think out what could or could not have happened.

2. It is known that Russia was subjected to constant invasions of its territory by nomadic peoples - Pechenegs, Polovtsians. How was the Mongol invasion different?

All of them are brought by the historical wave:

• in the 10th century, the Pechenegs, who oust the Khazars and extend their power to the Northern Black Sea region, the Azov region and the Crimea;
• in the 11th century, the Polovtsians, who partially assimilate, partially destroy and drive out the Pechenegs and take their place;
• in the 13th century, the Mongols, who partially destroy, partially displace the Polovtsians, and exert a strong influence on the ruling Russian elite until the end of the 15th century.

The Pechenegs and Polovtsians were exclusively engaged in robbery and population decimation. The customs of the Mongols were much tougher - they put to death those who violated their laws, they were merciless to the enemy and fought until it was completely destroyed.

3. Find out in which area Russian Federation the city of Kozelsk is located. Find out what is reminiscent of the events of 1238 in this city.

Today the city of Kozelsk is located on the territory of the Kaluga region. In memory of the events of that heroic defense today, a stone cross stands on the central square of Kozelsk, which is a copy of the cross erected on the mass grave of the dead residents of the city in 1238.

4. Why, in your opinion, despite heroic resistance, the Mongols managed to conquer the Russian lands?

The answer to this question can be formulated very briefly - one is not a warrior in the field. Without realizing itself as a single people, without mutual assistance and unification of all lands against a common threat, Russia was doomed to defeat.

Possible questions in the lesson

Which principality did the Mongols strike first?

The first blow of the Mongol Khan horde was struck in December 1237 against the Ryazan principality.

What did Batu demanded from the inhabitants of the Ryazan land?

Batu sent ambassadors to the Ryazan people demanding the payment of tribute, "a tenth of everything that you have in your land."

What did the Ryazan prince undertake?

The Ryazan prince refused the ambassadors: "When we are not all, then everything will be yours." At the same time, the Ryazan prince turned for help to the neighboring principalities and at the same time sent his son Fyodor to Batu with gifts.

What were the consequences of the negotiations with the Mongols?

Batu accepted the gifts, but put forward new demands - to give the prince's sisters and daughters as wives to his military leaders, and for himself he demanded the wife of the son of Prince Fyodor Eupraxia. Fedor responded with a decisive refusal and, along with the ambassadors, was executed.

Who was in charge of the defense of Moscow?

The defense of Moscow was led by the voivode Philip Nyanka.

Who led the defense of Vladimir?

The defense of Vladimir was led by the voivode Pyotr Oslyadjukovich.

What weapons did the Mongols use when storming cities?

When storming cities, the Mongols used battering devices and stone-throwing machines.

Which prince of Vladimir tried to unite forces and repel the conquerors?

After the fall of Ryazan, Vladimirsky Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich went north to collect an army.

What are the results of this battle?

Prince Yuri underestimated the Mongols, and his army was defeated in March 1238. In battle, Prince Yuri died. The throne was taken by his brother Yaroslav Vsevolodovich.

Describe the heroic defense of Kozelsk

Batu's horde approached Kozelsk, whose inhabitants refused to surrender and decided to defend the city. The defense of the city lasted 7 weeks. Then the Mongols applied their favorite tactics - after the next assault, they began to depict a stampede. The defenders of the city left the city and were surrounded. All residents of the city were killed, and the city was destroyed.

How did Novgorod manage to avoid the fate of many other centers of Russia?

The Mongols did not reach 100 versts to Novgorod. The city was well fortified and had well-trained troops, and the Mongol army was exhausted and lacked sufficient fodder for horses.

Why did the Mongols decide to "turn the horses' muzzles to the south"?

The battles with the Novgorodians could drag on, and the Mongolian horsemen would have to act in a spring thaw in a wooded and swampy area. After much deliberation, Batu ordered "to turn the horses' muzzles to the south," and the horde went to the Don steppes rich in pastures and spent the whole summer of 1238 there.

Why did Batu call Kozelsk "an evil city"?

Perhaps the "evil" city of Kozelsk became because 15 years ago before this invasion, it was Mstislav, the prince of Chernigov and Kozelsk, who took part in the murder of Mongolian ambassadors, which, in accordance with the concept of collective responsibility, made the city an object of revenge. And perhaps Batu was enraged by the fierce resistance of the city, which held firmly and for a long time, and during the siege Batu's army suffered heavy losses. By the way, during the seven-week siege, none of the Russians came to the aid of this city.

Which cities of North-Eastern Russia did the Mongols later raid?

Later, the Mongols raided Murom, Nizhny Novgorod, Gorokhovets.

Can you name 1237-1241? a tragic and heroic time in the history of Russia?

Yes, this period can be called a tragic and heroic time in the history of Russia. Heroic, because every city, every warrior fought bravely. Tragic, because many Russian cities were destroyed, the troops were defeated, and the inhabitants of the settlements were either killed or taken prisoner. But the most important tragedy, in my opinion, is that the entire past history of Russia did not teach the Russians that no matter how brave the soldiers were, they are weak without the unity of all Russian lands. Not only did the Russians weaken their positions by civil strife, they also did not want to unite even in the presence of a threat.

Why did Batu manage to conquer most of the Russian lands?

Batu managed to conquer most of the Russian lands, because every principality, every city fought only for itself. One by one, they were all captured, and the troops were defeated.

Question to point I 1. What was the main goal of the Mongol conquests?

The main goal was the conquest of the whole world (as Genghis Khan himself bequeathed).

Question to point I 2. What principalities existed in Russia at the beginning of the XIII century?

The Old Russian state split into Ryazan, Kiev, Chernigov, Polotsk, Galicia-Volynsk, Turovskoe, Novgorod-Seversk and many other principalities.

Question to I point 3. Suppose why Batu made his trip to North-Eastern Russia in winter.

In winter, numerous rivers and swamps did not bother him, since they were all frozen in ice. Moreover, it is on the frozen rivers that you can walk through dense forests like on roads.

Question to point III. Find out what peoples then lived in the North Caucasus.

At that time, many of the peoples that live there today lived in the North Kavakaz: Alans, Dargins, Ossetians and others.

Question to paragraph 1. Make in a notebook a chronological table of the main events associated with Batu's campaigns on Russia.

December 1237 - the beginning of the invasion, the capture of the Ryazan principality.

February 1238 - the fall of Vladimir.

March 5, 1238 - after a two-week siege, Torzhok was taken, however, Baty did not go further to Novgorod, but withdrew the troops to the steppe (perhaps Novgorod simply bought off from him, as he usually did after the capture of Torzhok, the main route of grain delivery to the republic).

Question to paragraph 2. Where did the conquerors meet with the fiercest resistance?

The longest resistance to the Mongols was the small town of Kozelsk.

Question to paragraph 3. What were the results of Batu's campaigns on the Russian lands?

The lands of the Old Russian state fell into dependence on the Mongols, while many of them were subjected to terrible ruin, a large number of people were killed or taken prisoner.

Question to paragraph 4. What consequences did Batu's invasion have for the Russian lands?

Consequences:

Many cities and lands were devastated;

The long Tatar-Mongol yoke began;

The economy and culture were revived for a long time after the invasion;

The Vladimir-Suzdal land was strengthened by refugees from the southern principalities who were fleeing from the invasion;

It was Moscow that later gathered the Russian lands around itself largely due to the correct policy towards the Mongol rulers;

Different lands suffered from the Mongols to varying degrees, their political fate later evolved in different ways, therefore, largely as a result of the invasion, processes began that later led to the division of the ancient Russian people into Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.

Question to paragraph 5. What, in your opinion, are the main reasons for the victories of Batu's troops?

Main reasons:

Perfection of the Mongolian War Machine;

The disunity of the Russian forces.

Thinking, comparing, reflecting: question number 1. Alexander Pushkin wrote that Western Europe was saved by "torn apart and dying of Russia." Explain the words of the poet.

After a campaign against the Russian principalities, Batu moved to Europe. From his successes in Poland and Hungary, it is clear that the knights, despite all their armor, could not defeat the Mongols. However, too much energy was spent on the Russian lands, and most importantly, time - the struggle for the throne of the Mongols was approaching and Batu hurried to complete the campaign, since he also had the right to this throne. The struggle for power prevented the Mongols from organizing new campaigns. It turns out that if Batu had moved first to Europe, it would have been conquered. But in reality, the Russian lands were ruined, and Europe remained independent.

Thinking, comparing, reflecting: question number 2. It is known that Russia was subjected to constant invasions of its territory by nomadic peoples - Pechenegs, Polovtsians. How was the Mongol invasion different?

First, neither the Pechenegs nor the Polovtsians had such a perfect military organization. It is worth recalling that the Pechenegs were once ousted from their habitats by the Cumans, and the Cumans, in turn, were conquered by the Mongols. Which clearly shows who had the best army.

Secondly, neither the Pecheneg tribes nor the Polovtsian tribes were ever united into one state. Realizing their relative weakness, the nomads themselves came only for prey, they did not seek to seize the land. All Mongol tribes were united, and that was their strength. Realizing this power, they initially came to conquer the Russian principalities, and not just plunder.

Thinking, comparing, reflecting: question number 3. Find out in which region of the Russian Federation the city of Kozelsk is located. Find out what is reminiscent of the events of 1238 in this city.

Today Kozelsk is located in the Kaluga region. The stone cross on the main square reminds of the heroic defense in the city.

Thinking, comparing, reflecting: question number 4. Why, in your opinion, despite heroic resistance, the Mongols managed to conquer the Russian lands?

First, at that time, the Mongols conquered all the lands that they attacked thanks to their perfect military machine. Only the struggle for power stopped their conquests. They also suffered a number of major defeats in the Far East, but either a very specific climate intervened there (as in Vietnam), or the failure occurred more at sea than on land (as in the case of Japan). The Russian principalities did not have a chance to win thanks to these factors, while without them no one was able to stop the Chingizid warriors.

In addition, the Mongols perfectly prepared for the campaign and scouted everything they needed. In particular, they even traveled along small rivers to not very significant cities - they obviously selected guides in advance (quite possibly - merchants who carried their goods to those cities).

While the Russian squads were not ready for the Mongol tactics of battle, and most importantly for the siege machines borrowed from the Chinese (thanks to which Batu took cities in weeks, under whose walls the princes stood for months during the strife).

Secondly, fragmentation also played an important role: Russian squads did not unite in the face of the Mongol threat. While Batu was ravaging the Vladimir-Suzdal land, the southern princes were inactive. Perhaps they thought that the invasion in 1238 would end, that is, they would not touch. But the trouble turned out to be common.

The invasion of Mongolian troops into Eastern and Central Europe threatened with almost complete destruction of European civilization. Having conquered all the lands to the west of Mongolia in an insignificantly short time by medieval standards, defeating huge armies, leveling the once rich and considered inaccessible cities to the ground, the Mongols at the beginning of the 13th century stood on the outskirts of Trieste, having in their hands detailed plans for an invasion of Italy, Austria and Germany ... What happened next could not be called anything other than a miracle: the Mongol troops turned back. What saved the rest of a terrified Europe from complete ruin?

The Kurultai (military council) of 1235 was the official start of the Mongol campaign to the west. Throughout the next winter, the Mongols were preparing for a performance in the upper reaches of the Irtysh. And in the spring of 1236, countless horsemen, huge herds, endless carts with equipment and siege weapons moved westward ... 14 princes, the descendants of Genghis Khan, took part in this grand campaign.

The son of Genghis Khan, Ogedei, sent an army of 150 thousand people to conquer Eastern Europe. His nephew Batu, the grandson of Genghis Khan, was officially appointed commander. In fact, the troops were led by the talented commander Subudai, who, having defeated the Volga Bulgars in December 1237, led the troops further west, crossing the frozen Volga. True, for the first time, the Mongols appeared on its shores much earlier - back in 1223, only probing the ground for a future invasion. At the same time, the Polovtsians first turned for help to the princes of the southern Russian lands with a proposal to jointly resist the Mongols.

“The Polovtsi could not resist them and ran to the Dnieper. Their Khan Kotyan was the father-in-law of Mstislav Galitsky; he came to his son-in-law, and to all the Russian princes ... and said: “The Tatars have taken our land today, and tomorrow they will take yours, so protect us; if you don’t help us, today we will be excised, and tomorrow you will be excised. ”

But then their general forces were defeated on the Kalka River.

And now, after 14 years, the Mongols again appeared at the Volga. In 1237 they crossed it in the middle reaches. Then events developed with astonishing rapidity. Batu was tasked with conquering Russia in one winter.

The first Russian city on the way of the Mongols was Ryazan. For the Ryazan people, the invasion came as a complete surprise. Although they were accustomed to the periodic raids of the Polovtsians and other nomadic tribes, this usually happened in the summer or late autumn, and therefore military operations in the winter put the Ryazan princes at a standstill. Batu demanded from the city "tithes in everything: in princes, in horses, in people." Residents of Ryazan refused.

The siege began on December 16. Ryazan was surrounded on all sides, the walls of the city were fired on round the clock from stone-throwing machines. And five days later, a decisive assault began. The Mongols managed to break through the defenses in several places at once. As a result, the entire Ryazan army and most of the city's inhabitants were brutally destroyed. Having won this victory, the Mongols stood for ten days near Ryazan - they plundered the city and neighboring villages, divided the booty.

Then Batu sent his troops along the Oka, through Kolomna and Moscow, to Vladimir. The battle for Kolomna became one of the most difficult and bloody for the Russian troops. In the battle for Kolomna, a descendant of Genghis Khan, Khan Kulkan, died. It is noteworthy that this was the only case of the death of Chingizid on the battlefield in the entire history of the Mongol conquests.

When Batu approached Moscow, the city was defended by a detachment of the son of the Grand Duke Yuri - Vladimir and the army of the governor Philip Nyanka. On the fifth day of the siege, Moscow fell and was completely destroyed. Prince Vladimir was taken prisoner, the governor was executed. After the fall of Moscow, a serious threat hung over the Vladimir principality. Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich, leaving the city to its fate, fled.

On February 4, the Mongols approached Vladimir. Their small detachment drove up to the walls of the city with a proposal to surrender. Stones and arrows flew in response. Then the Mongols surrounded the city, set up throwing machines. They managed to break through the city walls in several places, and on the morning of February 7, the decisive assault began. The princely family, boyars and surviving soldiers and townspeople took refuge in the Assumption Cathedral. They refused to surrender at the mercy of the winner and were burned. Vladimir was taken and ruined.

The very next day after the fall of Vladimir, the Mongols captured Suzdal, and on March 4 they overtook the fleeing Yuri Vsevolodovich, defeating his army near the Sit River. The prince was killed in battle. On March 5, Batu took Tver and laid siege to Torzhok. Torzhok staunchly resisted, but, having held out for two whole weeks, he was also taken. Batu's troops had already entered the Novgorod lands, but the spring thaw forced them to retreat and move south. Novgorod was saved, and the Mongols moved to Smolensk. But they did not manage to take Smolensk. Russian regiments met the enemy on the outskirts of the city and threw him back. Then Batu turned northeast and went to Kozelsk. Kozelsk defended for 51 days, but was eventually taken. Batu, having lost many soldiers at its walls, called it "an evil city" and ordered it to be razed to the ground. The result of this long assault was that the Mongols never reached either Beloozero, or Veliky Ustyug, or Novgorod.

The next year, 1239, Batu's troops rested in the Don steppes, preparing for new battles. A new campaign began only in 1240. Having captured and plundered Pereyaslavl, Chernigov and other southern Russian principalities, in November Mongol troops appeared at the walls of Kiev.

“Baty came to Kiev in a heavy force, the city was surrounded by a Tatar force, and nothing was heard from the creak of carts, from the roar of camels, from the neigh of horses; the Russian land was filled with warriors. "

The Kiev prince Daniel Galitsky fled, leaving the city on the governor Dmitry. The Mongols fired around the city with stone-throwing guns around the clock. When the walls collapsed, their troops tried to break into the city. During the night, with heroic efforts, the Kievites erected a new defensive wall around the Tithe Church. But the Mongols nevertheless broke through the defenses, and after a nine-day siege and assault on December 6, Kiev fell.

After the devastation of Kiev, the Mongols devastated Volhynia, Galicia and the rest of South Russia.

Strengthening power over the conquered Russian lands, the Mongols did not waste time. They collected the information they were interested in about Western Europe in the most thorough way. And if only contradictory rumors about the actions of the Mongols, brought mainly by refugees, reached the Europeans themselves, then the Mongols were informed in detail about the political, economic and social situation of Europe at that time. And they were already ready for a new war.

To control the Russian territories, Subudai left only a 30,000-strong army, defining 120,000 for the invasion of Central Europe. He understood perfectly well that Hungary, Poland, Bohemia and Silesia, having united, could gather an army, in number much larger than his own. In addition, Subudai knew that an invasion of any of these countries could lead to conflict with the rest. And most importantly - with the Holy Roman Empire. However, such information obtained by Mongol spies gave hope for significant disagreements between the Pope, the German emperor and the kings of England and France. Therefore, he hoped to deal with the European countries in turn.

Before the arrival of the Mongols, the states of Eastern Europe were incessantly at war with each other. Serbia barely managed to restrain the aggression of Hungary, Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire, while the expansion of Bulgaria was stopped only by complete defeat after the invasion of the Mongols.

Their detachments, spreading terror and panic, raced across Europe, capturing city after city. When only two Mongolian tumens (10 thousand soldiers each) reached Silesia at the beginning of April 1241, the Europeans considered that the invading troops exceeded 200 thousand

The warriors of northeastern Europe, although they believed in the terrible stories about the Mongols, were nevertheless ready to bravely fight for their land. The Silesian prince Henry the Pious gathered an army of 40 thousand Germans, Poles and Teutonic knights and took up a position at Lignitsa. King Wenceslas I of Bohemia, in order to unite with Henry, hastily moved north with a 50,000-strong army.

The Mongols launched a decisive attack when Wenceslas was only two days away. Henry's army fought bravely and stubbornly, but was still defeated, his remnants fled to the west, the Mongols did not pursue them. The northern tumens also fulfilled the task of Subudai - all of northern and central Europe was conquered.

Their leader Haidu took the separated tumen from the Baltic coast and turned south to join the main army in Hungary, devastating Moravia along the way.

Wenceslas's army, which was late for the battle, moved northwest to join the hastily recruited detachments of the German nobility. The southern column of the Mongols acted no less efficiently. After three decisive battles, by mid-April 1241, all European resistance in Transylvania was broken. Hungary at that time played a leading military and political role in Eastern Europe. On March 12, the main troops of the Mongols broke through the Hungarian barriers in the Carpathians. King Bela IV, having received news of the advance of the enemy, convened a military council on March 15 in the city of Buda in order to decide how to resist the invasion. While the council was in session, the king received a report that the Mongol vanguard was already on the opposite bank of the river. Not succumbing to panic and considering that the advance of the Mongols was restrained by the wide Danube and the fortifications of the city of Pest, the king, at the cost of incredible efforts, gathered almost 100 thousand soldiers. In early April, he went with an army east of Pest, confident that he would be able to drive out the invaders. The Mongols feigned retreat. After several days of careful pursuit, Bela encountered them near the Chaillot River, nearly 100 miles northeast of present-day Budapest. The Hungarian army unexpectedly quickly recaptured the bridge over the Chaillot from the small and weak Mongol detachment. Having built fortifications, the Hungarians took refuge on the western bank. From loyal people, Bela IV received accurate information about the forces of the enemy and knew that his army was much larger than the Mongol. Shortly before dawn, the Hungarians were under a hail of stones and arrows. After a deafening "artillery barrage", the Mongols rushed forward. They managed to surround the defenders. And after a short time it seemed to the Hungarians that a gap had appeared in the west, where they began to retreat under the onslaught of the attack. But this gap was a trap. From all directions the Mongols rushed on fresh horses, slaughtering the exhausted soldiers, driving them into the swamps and attacking the villages where they tried to hide. In just a few hours, the Hungarian army was almost completely destroyed.

The defeat of the Hungarians allowed the Mongols to gain a foothold throughout Eastern Europe from the Dnieper to the Oder and from the Baltic Sea to the Danube. In just 4 months, they defeated Christian armies that outnumbered their own by 5 times. Having suffered a crushing defeat from the Mongols, King Bela IV was forced to go into hiding, finding refuge on the coastal islands of Dalmatia. Later he managed to restore the central authority and even increase the power of the country. True, not for long - soon he was defeated by the Austrian Margrave Friedrich Babenberg the Grumpy and did not achieve success in a long war with the Bohemian king Ottokart II. In the same spring of 1241, the Mongols moved to Poland. At the head of their troops were the Batu brothers - Baydar and the Horde. They captured the cities of Lublin, Zavikhos, Sandomierz, as well as Krakow, however, according to legend, a bunch of brave men took refuge in the Krakow Cathedral of St. Andrew, whom the Mongols did not manage to defeat.

Then the Mongols invaded the lands of Bukovina, Moldavia and Romania. Slovakia, which was then under Hungarian rule, suffered severely. In addition, Batu also advanced westward to the Adriatic Sea, invaded Silesia, where he defeated the army of the Duke of Silesia. It seemed that the path to Germany and Western Europe was open

In the summer of 1241, Subudai consolidated his hold on Hungary and devised plans to invade Italy, Austria, and Germany. The desperate efforts of the Europeans to resist were poorly coordinated and their defenses were extremely ineffective.

At the end of December, the Mongols set out across the frozen Danube to the west. Their vanguard troops crossed the Julian Alps and headed for northern Italy, while the scouts approached Vienna along the Danube plain. Everything was ready for the decisive assault. And then the unexpected happened ... From the capital of the Great Mongol Empire Karakorum came the news that the son and successor of Genghis Khan Ogedei had died. Genghis Khan's law unambiguously stated that after the death of the ruler, all descendants of the clan, wherever they are, even if they are 6 thousand miles away, must return to Mongolia and take part in the election of a new khan. So, in the vicinity of Venice and Vienna, terrified to death, the Mongolian tumens were forced to turn around and move back to Karakorum. On the way to the borders of Mongolia, their wave swept through Dalmatia and Serbia, then eastward through northern Bulgaria.

The death of Ogedei saved Europe.

Russia remained under the Mongol yoke for almost 240 years.

1237 The invasion of the Mongols in Russia. They cross the Volga in the middle reaches and invade northeastern Russia
1237.12.21 Batu's army takes Ryazan; population killed, city burned
1238.02.07 Siege of Vladimir; the city was taken by storm, burned, the population exterminated
1238.02.08 Mongols capture Suzdal
1238.03.05 Batu takes Tver, besieges Torzhok, enters the Novgorod lands, but because of muddy roads he stops the offensive. Novgorod remains unharmed
1239 Hike of the Mongol-Tatars to Ukraine and Rostov-Suzdal land. Batu's army, having united with Mongke's troops, remains for a year in the Don steppes
1240 (early summer) Batu plunders Pereyaslavl, Chernigov and other southern Russian principalities
1240.12.06 Kiev was taken and destroyed; all inhabitants are exterminated. After the capture of Kiev, the Mongols devastate Volhynia and Galicia and all of South Russia
1240 Russian lands are taxed. The "official" beginning of the yoke, which lasted until 1480
1242 Return of Batu to Mongolia after the news of the death of the great khan Ogedei (1241)
1243 Yaroslav, the son of Vsevolod, began to reign in Vladimir. The first trip of the Russian prince (Yaroslav Vsevolodovich) to the headquarters of the Mongol khan. Yaroslav receives from the Khan of the Golden Horde a label (letter) for the great reign
1257 - 1259 A census of the Russian population (with the exception of clergymen) was carried out by the Mongols to determine the amount of tribute ("exit") to the Golden Horde. Repeated uprisings of the Slavs against the Mongol oppressors; officials (baskaki) who collect tribute are especially indignant
1262 Mongol-Tatar "tributaries" were expelled from Rostov, Vladimir, Suzdal and Yaroslavl
1270 Khan's label allowing Novgorod to trade freely in Suzdal land
1289 Mongol-Tatar tributaries were expelled from Rostov again

and the struggle of Russia against the aggression of German and Swedish feudal lords in the XIII century "

Battle of Kalka. At the beginning of the XIII century. there was a unification of the nomadic Mongol tribes who embarked on campaigns of conquest. At the head of the tribal union was Genghis Khan, a brilliant commander and politician. Under his leadership, the Mongols conquered North China, Central Asia, steppe territories stretching from the Pacific Ocean to the Caspian Sea.

The first clash of the Russian principalities with the Mongols took place in 1223, during which a Mongol reconnaissance detachment descended from the southern slopes of the Caucasian mountains and invaded the Polovtsian steppes. The Polovtsi turned to the Russian princes for help. Several princes responded to this call. The Russian-Polovtsian army met the Mongols on the Kalka River. In the battle that followed, the Russian princes acted incoherently, and part of the army did not participate at all in the battle. As for the Polovtsians, they could not withstand the onslaught of the Mongols and fled, As a result

battles Russian-Polovtsian army it was utterly defeated, six princes perished, the Russian squads suffered heavy losses: only the tenth warrior returned home.

But the Mongols did not invade Russia. They turned back into the Mongolian steppes.

Reasons for the victories of the Mongols. The main reason for the Mongols' victories was the superiority of their army, which was well-organized and trained. The Mongols managed to create the best army in the world, in which strict discipline was maintained. The Mongol army consisted almost entirely of cavalry, so it was maneuverable and could cover very long distances. The main weapon of the Mongol was a powerful bow and several quivers with arrows. The enemy was fired at from a distance and only then, if necessary, selected units entered the battle. The Mongols made extensive use of such military techniques as false flight, flanking, and encirclement.

From China, siege weapons were borrowed, with the help of which the conquerors could capture large fortresses. The conquered peoples often provided military contingents to the Mongols. The Mongols attached great importance to intelligence. An order was formed, within the framework of which, before the alleged military actions, spies and scouts penetrated into the country of the future enemy.

The Mongols quickly dealt with any disobedience, brutally suppressing any attempts to resist. Using the “divide and conquer” policy, they sought to fragment the enemy forces in the conquered states. It was thanks to this strategy that they managed to maintain their influence in the occupied lands for a fairly long time period.

Batu's invasion of North-Eastern Russia. IN 1236 the Mongols undertook a grandiose march to the west. At the head of the army was Genghis Khan's grandson, Batu Khan. Having defeated the Volga Bulgaria, the Mongol army approached the borders of North-Eastern Russia. In the fall of 1237, the conquerors invaded the Ryazan principality.

The Russian princes did not want to unite in the face of a new and formidable enemy. Ryazan, left alone,

were defeated in a border battle, and after a five-day siege the Mongols took the city itself by storm.

Then the Mongol army invaded the Vladimir principality, where it was greeted by the grand ducal squad led by the son of the Grand Duke. In the battle of Kolomna, the Russian army was defeated. Using the confusion of the Russian princes in the face of impending danger, the Mongols sequentially seized Moscow, Suzdal, Rostov, Tver, Vladimir and other cities. In March 1238, on the City River, a battle took place between the Mongols and the Russian army gathered throughout North-Eastern Russia. The Mongols won a decisive victory, killing Grand Duke Yuri in battle.

Further, the conquerors headed towards Novgorod, but, fearing to get bogged down in the spring thaw, they turned back. On the way back, the Mongols took Kursk and Kozelsk. Especially fierce resistance was put up by Kozelsk, which the Mongols called the "Evil City".

Batu's campaign to Southern Russia. During 1238 - 1239, the Mongols fought with the Polovtsy, after the conquest of which they set out on a second campaign against Russia. The main forces here were thrown into Southern Russia; in northeastern Russia, the Mongols captured only the city of Murom.

The political fragmentation of the Russian principalities helped the Mongols quickly seize the southern lands. The capture of Pereyaslavl and Chernigov was followed by the fall on December 6, 1240 after the fierce battles of the ancient Russian capital - Kiev. Then the conquerors moved to the Galicia-Volyn land. Here, only the small towns of Kamenets and Danilov were able to withstand the onslaught of the invaders.

After the defeat of Southern Russia, the Mongols invaded Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic and reached Croatia. Despite his victories, Batu was forced to stop, since he did not receive reinforcements, and in 1242 he completely withdraw his troops from these countries.

Threat from the northwest. At the end of the XII - the beginning of the XIII centuries. German feudal lords, organized into spiritual knightly orders, began to conquer the Baltic, conquering the local pagan population. These seizures were carried out with the blessing of the Roman Catholic Church and

walked in the form of crusades. The crusaders forcibly converted the pagans - local Estonian and Latvian tribes - to Christianity. The occupied territories were covered with a network of castles, and the best plots were distributed to the use of German feudal lords.

The aggression of the Western knights led to the fact that the Polotsk principality was cut off from the Baltic Sea, Russia was deprived of its traditional influence on the local tribes, who had long paid tribute to it. There was an immediate threat to the northwestern lands of Russia.

In 1237, the Order of the Swordsmen, which had operated in the Baltic States since the beginning of the 13th century, united with the Teutonic Order. The new order was named Livonian. A new round of expansion of the crusaders is unfolding - now against Russia. After the defeat of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1204, Orthodox Christians were in the eyes of Catholics no better than pagans.

Only Novgorod could provide organized resistance to the growing expansion of the crusaders.

Battle of the Neva. At the same time, the Swedish kingdom decided to coordinate its actions with the crusaders and strike a blow at the Russian principalities, depriving Novgorod, its old enemy, of access to the Baltic. In the summer of 1240 an army of Swedes landed at the mouth of the Neva. In Novgorod then ruled the young prince Alexander Yakovlevich, who organized a rebuff to the enemy. He acted quickly and decisively - without collecting the Novgorod militia, so as not to waste time, the prince with his retinue and a small detachment of volunteers from the townspeople set out against the enemy. The Russian army unexpectedly attacked the Swedish camp from the side of the forest, forcing them to the ships. Several ships were captured. ”The broken Swedes had no choice but to return home. For this victory, the young Prince Alexander was nicknamed "Nevsky".

Ice carnage. Meanwhile, the crusaders achieved major successes: they captured the border Izborsk, and then, with the help of traitors in the city, the Pskov fortress. Detachments of the Germans approached Novgorod itself.

Alexander Nevsky was again invited to Novgorod to lead the fight against the crusaders. In 1241 - 1242 he liberates Koporye and Pskov from the Germans. On April 5, 1242, a decisive battle took place on the ice of Lake Peipsi - the Battle on the Ice. As a result of the battle, the main forces of the crusaders were defeated, and the expansion of the Order itself was suspended for the next ten years.

Lithuania. In the XIII century. the Russian principalities had another enemy in the northwest - Lithuania. During this period, the process of the formation of a state was going on in Lithuania, and the Lithuanian princes, in order to strengthen their power, undertook campaigns against the Russian principalities and the lands of the Livonian Order. Initially, their invasions were unsuccessful. But by the end of the XIII century. The Lithuanians, taking advantage of the weakness of the fragmented and weakened by the Mongol-Tatar invasion of Russia, managed to seize part of the Russian lands.

Consequences of the invasions of Russia. The Tatar-Mongol invasion was different from the raids of other nomads, for example, the Polovtsians. It happened immediately throughout the country and was a great shock for contemporaries. Many cities were destroyed and plundered. The Mongols did not confine themselves to the invasion - Russia lost its independence and was forced to pay a heavy tribute:

On the other hand, at the same time, a more dangerous enemy, the crusaders, was repelled. The Mongols, having established their power over the Russian principalities, monitored only the correct payment of tribute and the preservation of the system of political fragmentation, without interfering in the affairs of the Orthodox Church. The conquest of Russia by the crusaders could lead to the loss of Russian statehood, religion and culture.