Symbols on a map or plan are a kind of their alphabet, according to which they can be read, find out the nature of the terrain, the presence of certain objects, and evaluate the landscape. As a rule, conventional signs on a map convey common features with geographic objects that exist in reality. The ability to decipher cartographic symbols is indispensable when making tourist trips, especially to a distant and unfamiliar area.

All objects indicated on the plan can be measured on a map scale to represent their actual size. Thus, conventional signs on a topographic map are its "legend", their interpretation for the purpose of further orientation on the ground. Homogeneous objects are indicated by the same color or stroke.

All outlines of objects located on the map, according to the method of graphic representation, are divided into several types:

• Areal
• Linear
• Point

The first type consists of objects occupying a large area on a topographic map, which are expressed by areas enclosed in boundaries in accordance with the scale of the map. These are objects such as lakes, forests, swamps, fields.

Linear symbols are outlines in the form of lines, they can be seen at the scale of the map along the length of the object. These are rivers, railways or highways, power lines, glades, streams, etc.

Dotted outlines (off-scale) represent small objects that cannot be expressed at the scale of the map. These can be both individual cities and trees, wells, pipes and other small single objects.

Symbols are applied in order to have the fullest possible understanding of the specified area, but this does not mean that absolutely all the smallest details of a real separate area or city are identified. The plan indicates only those objects that are of great importance for the national economy, the Ministry of Emergency Situations, as well as military personnel.

Types of conventional symbols on maps

Symbols used on military maps

To recognize the signs of a card, you need to be able to decipher them. Symbols are categorized as large-scale, off-scale, and explanatory.

• Scale symbols indicate local features that can be expressed in size on the scale of a topographic map. Their graphic designation appears as a small dotted line or thin line. The area inside the border is filled with conventional icons that correspond to the presence of real objects in this area. The scale marks on a map or plan can be used to measure the area and dimensions of a real topographic object, as well as its outline.
• Out-of-scale legends indicate objects that cannot be displayed at the scale of the plan, the size of which cannot be judged. These are some kind of separate buildings, wells, towers, pipes, kilometer posts and so on. Out-of-scale designations do not indicate the dimensions of the object located on the plan, so it is difficult to determine the actual width, length of a pipe, elevator or free-standing tree. The purpose of off-scale marking is to accurately indicate a specific object, which is always important when navigating when traveling in unfamiliar terrain. The exact indication of the location of the indicated objects is carried out by the main point of the symbol: it can be the center or the lower middle point of the figure, the vertex of a right angle, the lower center of the figure, the axis of the symbol.
• Explanatory signs serve to disclose information of large-scale and non-scale designations. They give an additional characteristic to objects located on a plan or map, for example, indicating the direction of the river flow with arrows, designating the forest species with special signs, the carrying capacity of the bridge, the nature of the road surface, the thickness and height of trees in the forest.

In addition, topographic plans are placed on themselves with other designations that serve as an additional characteristic for some of the indicated objects:

• Signatures

Some signatures are used in full, some are abbreviated. The names of settlements, the names of rivers, lakes are fully deciphered. Abbreviated labels are used to indicate more detailed characteristics of some objects.

• Numerical conventions

They are used to indicate the width and length of rivers, roads and railways, transmission lines, the height of points above sea level, the depth of fords, etc. The standard designation of the map scale is always the same and depends only on the size of this scale (for example, 1: 1000, 1: 100, 1: 25000, etc.).

In order to make it as easy as possible to navigate on a map or plan, the symbols are indicated in different colors. To distinguish even the smallest objects, more than twenty different shades are used, from intensely colored areas to less bright ones. To make the map easy to read, there is a table with the decoding of the color codes at the bottom of it. So, usually water bodies are indicated in blue, light blue, turquoise; forest objects in green; the terrain is brown; city ​​quarters and small settlements - gray-olive; highways and highways - orange; state borders - in purple, neutral area - in black. Moreover, quarters with fire-resistant structures and structures are marked in orange, and quarters with non-fire-resistant structures and improved dirt roads are marked in yellow.

The unified system of symbols for maps and terrain plans is based on the following provisions:

• Each graphic sign always corresponds to a certain type or phenomenon.
• Each sign has its own clear pattern.
• If the map and plan differ in scale, objects will not differ in their designation. The only difference will be in their size.
• Drawings of real terrain objects usually indicate an associative relationship with it, therefore they reproduce the profile or appearance of these objects.

To establish an associative connection between a sign and an object, there are 10 types of composition formation:

Map frames and coordinate lines. Topographic map sheets have three frames: inner, minute and outer. The inner frame is formed by segments of parallels that limit the area of ​​the map from the north and south, and segments of meridians that limit it from the west and east. The latitude and longitude values ​​on the lines of the inner frame are associated with the nomenclature of the map and are written in each of its corners.

A minute frame is placed between the inner and outer frames, on which divisions are drawn corresponding to one minute of latitude (left and right) and longitude (above and below). Dots on the frame mark tens of seconds.

The system of rectangular coordinates on the map is represented by a kilometer grid formed by coordinate lines drawn every 1 km. x and y... The values x and y, expressed in kilometers, are inscribed at the outlets of the lines beyond the inner frame of the map.

Scale plans 1: 5000-1: 500 with rectangular layout have only a grid of rectangular coordinates. Its lines are drawn every 10 cm.

Symbols. On plans and maps, terrain objects are depicted with conventional signs.

Symbols distinguish between contour, off-scale, and linear.

Contour conventional symbols represent objects, the shape and size of which can be transferred to the scale of the plan (map). These include land (forests, gardens, arable land, meadows), water bodies, and for a larger scale - buildings and structures. The outlines of objects (outlines) on the plan are shown with dotted lines or lines of a certain thickness and color. Signs are placed inside the outline indicating the nature of the object.

Out-of-scale conventional signs represent objects that need to be plotted on the plan, but it is impossible to depict on a scale (gas stations, wells, points of a geodetic network, etc.).

Linear conventional signs represent objects, the length of which is expressed on the scale of the plan, and the width is not expressed (power lines and communications, pipelines, fences, paths).

To reflect the characteristics of the depicted objects, many conventional signs are accompanied by explanatory captions. So, when depicting a railway, indicate the height of the embankment and the depth of the excavation, the track width on a narrow-gauge road. When depicting a highway, indicate its width and pavement material; when displaying communication lines - the number of wires and their purpose; when depicting forests - tree species, average height, trunk thickness and distance between trees.

Relief image. On maps and plans, the relief is depicted using contour lines, elevations and conventional signs.

Horizontal lines- lines of section of the earth's surface by equidistant level surfaces. In other words, horizontals are lines of equal heights. Horizontals, like other terrain points, project onto a level surface Q and put on the plan (Figure 4.3).

Rice. 4.3. Horizontal lines: h- the height of the relief section; d- laying

Difference h heights of adjacent contours, equal to the distance between the secant surfaces, is called relief section height... The value of the section height is signed at the bottom of the plan.

The horizontal distance between adjacent contours is called laying down... The minimum in a given place is the laying perpendicular to the horizontals, - stingray... The smaller the slope is, the steeper the slope.

The direction of the slope is indicated bergstriked- short strokes on some contours, directed towards the descent. On separate horizontals, in their gaps, their height is written so that the top of the numbers points in the direction of the rise.

Horizontal lines with round values ​​of heights are made thicker, and to reflect the details of the relief they use semi-horizontal- dashed lines corresponding to half the height of the relief section, as well as auxiliary contours with short strokes, drawn at an arbitrary height.

The image of the relief with horizontal lines is supplemented by inscribing elevation marks around the characteristic points of the relief and special conventional signs depicting cliffs, rocks, ravines, etc. on the plan.

The main landforms are a mountain, a hollow, a ridge, a hollow and a saddle (Fig. 4.4).

Rice. 4.4. The main landforms: a- mountain; b- basin; v- ridge; G- hollow; d- saddle; 1 - watershed line; 2 - spillway line.

Mountain(elevation, hill, mound, hill) is depicted by closed horizontals with bergstrikas facing outward (Fig.4.4, a). The characteristic points of the mountain are its top and points at the bottom.

Hollow(depression) is also depicted by closed horizontals, but with bergstrikas facing inward (Fig.4.4, b). The characteristic points of the basin are points at its bottom and along the edge.

Ridge- an elongated hill. It is depicted as enveloping the crest of a ridge and elongated horizontals going along its slopes (Fig.4.4, v). The bergstrichs, like those of the mountain, face outward. The characteristic line of the ridge is the line running along its crest dividing line.

Hollow(valley, gorge, ravine, ravine) - a depression extended in one direction. It is depicted as elongated, horizontals with bergshrikhs facing inward (Fig.4.4, G). The characteristic line of the hollow is spillway(thalweg) - the line along which the water runs.

Saddle(pass) - a decrease between two hills (Fig.4.4, d). Hollows adjoin the saddle on both sides. The saddle is the intersection of the watershed and spillway lines.

Geography. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M .: Rosman. Edited by prof. A.P. Gorkina. 2006 .

See what "conventional signs" are in other dictionaries:

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Books

• ,. Symbols for topographic plans. Scales 1: 5000, 1: 2000, 1: 1000 and 1: 500 Reproduced in the original author's spelling of the 1973 edition (publishing house `Nedra`). ...
• Symbols for topographic plans,. Symbols for topographic plans. Scales 1: 5000, 1: 2000, 1: 1000 and 1: 500 Reproduced in the original author's spelling of the 1973 edition (Nedra Publishing House ...

MUNICIPAL BUDGETARY INSTITUTION FOR SUPPLEMENTARY EDUCATION

"CENTER FOR CHILDREN'S AND YOUTH TOURISM

AND EXCURSION "BRYANSK

LESSON OUTCOMES ON THE TOPIC:

DEVELOPED: teacher d / o

Stasishina N.V.

Bryansk - 2014

Plan - synopsis

classes on the topic

"Symbols of topographic maps".

The purpose of the lesson: To give an idea of ​​the conventional signs of topographic maps.

Lesson objectives:

To acquaint students with the concept of conventional signs and its varieties;

To attract members of the circle to systematic sports;

Develop teamwork skills and joint search for solutions;

Continue to promote the development of logical thinking, memory and

attention of students;

Equipment: 1. posters with conventional signs.

2. cards with test tasks.

Occupation type: Learning new material.

Literature: 1. Aleshin V.M. "Tourist topography" - Profizdat, 1987

2. Aleshin V.M., Serebrenikov A.V., "Tourist topography" - Profizdat, 1985

3. Vlasov A, Ngorny A. - "Tourism" (teaching aid), M., Higher

school, 1977

4. Voronov A. - "Handbook of a tourist on topography" - Krasnodar., Book of publishing, 1973

6. Kuprin A., "Topography for all" - M., Nedra, 1976

Lesson plan

Preparatory part. (3)

Explanation of the new topic: (45)

Presentation of new information.

3. Consolidation of the studied material. (eight)

4. Summing up the results of the lesson. (2)

5. Organizational moment. (2)

The course of the lesson.

1. Preparatory part:

Students take places at desks, prepare writing utensils

The teacher announces the topic, goals and objectives of the lesson, explains the requirements and plan of the lesson, checks those present.

Note

ready for

occupation, form

clothing engaged.

2. Explanation of the new topic:

Presentation of new information:

Today in the lesson we will look at a new topic:

"Symbols of topographic maps".

The card has many names printed in common words, numbers, lines and many icons in different colors, sizes and shapes. it topographic symbols, which indicate local items on the map.

What are conventional signs?

Symbols are symbols used to represent the actual location on the map.

Topographers invented special symbols to make them, if possible, similar to the local objects themselves, and correspond in size to them on the map scale. For example, a forest on topographic maps is shown in green (after all, it is actually green); houses and other buildings are depicted as rectangles, since if you look at them from above, they really almost always have the shape of rectangles; rivers, streams, lakes are depicted in blue, since the water, reflecting the sky, also seems to us blue. But it is not always possible to depict every local object on the map exactly in shape, color and size. Take, for example, a highway road, the width of which is 20 m. thinner - 0.1 mm. Small in size, but important local objects are depicted on topographic maps with special off-scale signs, that is, such signs that do not correspond to the actual sizes of local objects, reduced according to the scale of a particular map. For example, a small fontanelle on the bank of a river is depicted on the map as a blue circle with a diameter of a millimeter; in addition, highways and other major roads are made in color on maps so that, as they say, they are striking to anyone who picks up a topographic map. For example, an asphalt highway is shown as a bright red line on the map.

Symbols used in drawing up sports maps for orienteering competitions are somewhat different from topographic ones. Their main purpose is to give the athlete the information about the terrain that he needs when choosing a path of movement. These are signs showing the passability of forests, swamps, paths, etc. So, for ease of reading on the run, on a sports map, in contrast to a topographic map, it is not the forest that is painted over, but the open space - fields, meadows, glades in the forest. All topographic symbols can be divided into four types:

1) linear- these are roads, communication lines, power lines, streams, rivers, etc. That is, these are signs of such local objects, which themselves have the form of long lines;

Write the topic on the board.

Students write down a new topic in their notebook.

2) curly- these are signs of towers, bridges, churches, ferries, power plants, individual buildings, etc.;

3) areal - these are signs of forests, swamps, settlements, arable lands, meadows - that is, local objects that occupy significant areas of the earth's surface. Areal signs consist of two

elements: a contour and a sign that fills the contour;

4) explanatory- these are signs of forest characteristics, names of settlements, railway stations, rivers, lakes, mountains, etc.,

these are the width of the highway, the length, width and carrying capacity of bridges, the depth of fords on rivers, and the like.

Almost all linear and figured signs are off-scale, and areal, as a rule, exactly correspond to the true dimensions of local objects. Signs are easier to learn and memorize by getting to know them in groups, which are formed by the type of local subjects:

group No. 1 - roads and road structures;

group number 2 - settlements, buildings;

group number 3 - hydraulic network (that is, water on the ground);

group No. 4 - vegetation;

group No. 5 - relief;

group 6 - explanatory and special tourist signs.

Group No. 1. Roads and road structures

This group includes eleven major topographic signs.

All roads can be divided into three main types: railways for train traffic, highways and dirt roads.

Highways are called roads that have a solid artificialcovering - stone (cobblestone, paving stones), asphalt or concrete. The highway sign is off-scale. Every sign of shosthis road on the map is given an additional sign- alphanumeric digital characteristic, consisting of three elements: numbers, one more number in brackets and a letter. The first digit indicates the width of the highway surface in meters (i.e. asphalted,part of the roadway covered with stone), and in bracketsa figure is given indicating the width of the entire roadway in meters, that is, together with the curbs. The letter denotes the material with which the highway is covered: if it is asphalt, then the letter "A" is put, if the concrete is the letter "B", and if the highway is covered with buskier or paving stone (i.e. stone), then the letter "K".

The next type of highways is unpaved, earth roads without artificial surface. All dirt roads are divided into three types: simple dirt roads (they are also called field or forest roads), country roads, and so on.

called improved dirt roads (abbreviated as UGD). An improved dirt road is also an earthen road, but it has a slightly convex shape for better water flow, ditches along the sides and gravel or crushed stone dumping, compacted by a roller.

No one makes trails on purpose, they arise on their own.fight from the constant walking of people. In a densely populated area,rarely a whole network can go in the same direction at oncepaths that now close, then again diverge. Such a lotit is impossible to depict the number of paths on the map, therefore the grouppaths show one conventional path in the corresponding directionlaziness. Only long enough in length and permanently existing (they are sometimes called "secular") trails are appliedon large-scale maps. The conventional sign of the trail is almost like thisthe same as a simple dirt road - thin black intermittentdashed line, but every strokehas a shorter length.

Railways used to be braced with two thin blackparallel lines, lumen between which was filled in byalternately black and white shanecks. Now signis a solidthick black line. Two koshort strokes across the signpaths denote that shehas two tracks. If there is only one track, then one stroke is put. If the cross stroke has morea short line parallel to the railroad sign, then this is known cheat that the road is electrified.

At the railway station sign, a black rectangle inside a white rectangle is placed on the side of the railway where the station building (station building) is located.

Bridges. On simple dirt roads, as a rule, they build wooden bridges; on highways, improved dirt roads and on important country roads, bridges are most often made of concrete (stone). On railways, large bridges across large rivers are always metal, and across small rivers, concrete. Topographic signs of bridges are curly and off-scale signs.
Where a bridge sign is placed on the map, the road and river signs are torn apart (Figure 37). The alphanumeric characteristics of the bridge serve as an explanatory sign for the bridges. For example: DZ =
(24 - 5) / 10. Here the letter "D" denotes the material from which the bridge is built - wood (if the bridge is concrete, put the letter

"TO"). Coefficient 3 is the height of the bridge above the water surface in the river. In the numerator of the fraction, the first number, 24, is the length of the bridge in meters, the second number, 5, is its width in meters. In the denominator, the number 10 shows the carrying capacity of the bridge in tons, that is, what is the maximum weight of the machine the bridge is calculated at its designing.

On footpaths, bridges are often made too, but very small - only for pedestrians. Such bridges (residents often call them either treasures or lavas) are sometimes just two logs laid over the river from bank to bank. The topographic mark of the footbridge is very simple.

Very often the roads are crossed with small dry

gullies, hollows, along which streams flow only in spring, when the snow melts. During the construction of the road, an embankment is made across the ravine, under which a concrete pipe is laid for

Students write in a notebook.

Symbols are sketched in a notebook

highway

Simple dirt road

Country road

Improved dirt road

Railway

Bridge

Pedestrian bridge

water runoff. Such pipes have their own topographic mark.

Group number 2. Settlements, individual buildings

In this group there are fifteen major topographic signs. The settlements themselves - villages, auls, farms, townships, cities - are complex formations consisting of various buildings and structures. Therefore, there is no simple topographic mark of a settlement - it consists of topographic marks of various local objects that make up what is called a settlement.

Separate residential and non-residential buildings are depicted by an off-scale black rectangle. If the building is very large in area, and the map is large-scale, then the building is depicted as a black figure similar in shape and size (on the map scale) to the building itself. That is, it is already a large-scale sign. Often, at some distance from the village or settlement, there is a residential building with its own vegetable garden, orchard, and outbuildings.

For such a separate yard, or farm, there is a special topographic mark.

In settlements, there are quarters with a predominance of wooden (non-fire-resistant) and stone (fire-resistant) buildings. Topographic mark quarter of the settlement limited to thin black lines. Inside it, a background is given either yellow (if wooden buildings prevail in the quarter), or orange (if stone fire-resistant buildings prevail in the quarter). On the background, black rectangles are located - off-scale signs of individual houses, buildings, or large-scale signs of individual large structures. Next to the signs of some buildings, their characteristics are given. For example: "ShK." - school, "SICK." - hospital, "EL-ST." - power plant, "SAN" - sanatorium.

The fence topographic mark is the thinnest black line on the map. Such a sign is often found on maps in the form of a broken closed line, which denotes some kind of fenced-in area.

If an industrial enterprise is depicted on a small-scale map, then it is necessary to use an off-scale sign of a plant (factory) with a pipe (meaning a tall pipe that can serve as a reference point visible at a sufficiently large distance) or without a pipe. An abbreviated explanatory sign is given next to the sign, characterizing the type of products manufactured by the enterprise. For example: "kirp" - brick factory, "muk." - flour mill, "boom." -paper factory, "sah." - sugar factory, etc.

If an industrial enterprise occupies a large area, then the usual large-scale signs are used, showing all or almost all buildings and structures on its territory: a fence, a plant management building, workshops, warehouses, etc.

diagonally off-scale plant sign.

pipe under the road

Selected buildings

Khutor

Urban development

Plants and factories

Inside the settlement there may bechurch, monument or a monument, cemetery ... A cemetery can be small or large, with or without trees. Poethat for the image of the cemetery, both large-scale andand off-scale sign. On hikes and travels you can findeven in a deep forest, a separate courtyard where he lives

forester and his family. Forester's house has its own topographic mark - the usual non-scale mark of a separate building with the inscription "forest."

Various well-visible from afar can serve as important landmarks. ba buildingshennogo type- water towers, fire towers, silos. They are designated by one off-scale sign, next to which an explanation is often given what kind of tower it is.

Good landmarks are also high, often standing on the tops of hills, wooden towers with an observation platform at the very top, where a staircase leads. These are the so-called triangulation points(they are called trigopunks for short). There is always a number next to the trigger point sign on the map, which indicates the height of the tower base above the Baltic Sea level in meters and centimeters.

A sign that looks like bricks stacked on top of each other - peat extraction, that is, the place where peat is mined.

And the last of this group are very important local objects, the topographic signs of which you need to know, are communication lines and power lines (power lines).

Communication lines are indicated on all cards, regardless of the nature of the connection, by a thin black line with black dots on it. The sign of the communication line is drawn on the map as the communication line itself goes on the ground.

Power lines(Power lines) are on wooden poles or on metal and concrete supports. The sign of the power transmission line consists of a thin black line, on which dots or dashes with arrows are located at intervals of one centimeter.

If the power line is laid on wooden poles, then dots are put, if on metal or concrete supports - short thickened lines.

Group number 3. Hydrography

There are 8 basic signs in this group that you need to know.

During walking trips, tourists constantly "communicate" with the surface waters of the earth - they set up camp on the banks of rivers and lakes, lay routes along rivers, wade them, overcome swamps, ditches, use springs to cook food on a fire.

One of the main topographic marks of this group is river sign- can be both large-scale and off-scale (along the width of the river). The sign of a wide, large river consists of two elements - the contour of the river's coastlines (as well as the coastline of the islands, if any), which is drawn with a thin blue line, and the filling sign - a blue background depicting the surface of the river, that is, the space occupied by water.

Church

monument

forester's house

tower

trigoppoint

peat extraction

Communication line

Power lines

Big river

Out-of-scale sign small river or brook is a simple thin blue line, which, however, gradually thickens from source to mouth.

There are streams that "live" only in spring and early summer, and then the water disappears in them. it peresflowing streams and rivers. The sign of such streams and rivers is a thin blue, but not solid, but a dashed line.

Information about where the river flows and what the speed of the current is will also be given by a topographic map with an explanatory sign of hydrography - a black arrow showing the direction of the river flow, and numbers in the middle of the arrow and showing the speed of the current in meters per second.

Sea, lake, pond are depicted in the same way: the outlines of the coast are shown with a thin blue line, and the water mirror is shown with a blue background.

In a densely populated area, wells located in settlements are shown only on very large-scale maps (on site plans). Sign wells- a blue circle with a blue dot in the center.

Water sources(springs, springs) are also shown on topographic maps only when they are not dry and significant in terms of the amount of water. The sign of the source (spring) is a blue circle. If a constant stream flows out of the spring, then it is indicated by the corresponding sign. If the water soon goes back into the ground, the sign of the stream is not shown.

Swamps there are two types: passable and impassable (or even completely impassable), through which it is dangerous to move and it is better to bypass. Accordingly, there are two signs of swamps: short blue horizontal strokes, grouped in the form of irregular rhombuses, are passable swamps, but solid horizontal blue strokes are impassable swamps. The boundaries of the swamps are outlined with a black dashed line.

And the last sign of this group are ditches, the signs of which are thin blue lines. This sign is similar to the sign of an ordinary stream, but in shape it differs sharply from it: the line of the stream is always smoothly winding, and the ditches have broken lines with long, even sections without bends.

Group No. 4. Vegetation

This group includes 15 topographic signs, most of which are areal and, therefore, large-scale signs.

The first sign is land boundaries, that is, the area occupied by one or another natural or artificial vegetation. Every forest has an edge, a field, meadows, swamps - an edge. This is their borders, which are shown on topographic maps with a small dashed line in black. But the boundaries of land are not always shown with a dotted line: if there is a road right along the edge of a forest or along the edge of arable land, a meadow, then the sign of this road replaces the sign of the borders, that is, the road itself already delimits the forest from the field, the field from the meadow, the meadow from the swamp, etc. etc. If a vegetable garden or cemetery is fenced off, then the fence is the border.

When held land boundaries dotted line (or some other sign) - that is, their contours are given, a filling sign is given on both sides of the border - a background and other icons that show what exactly the contour is doing, what vegetation is in it.

Sign forests- green background. If the forest is old (as they say - ripe), then the background is made dark green, and if the forest is young (forest growth) - lightlo green. The same is depicted andparks in settlements.
It is important to know not only what the forest is, but also what it is - what kind oftree species grow, how thick they grow.
There are special explanatory signs for this.
- specifications tree stand. These signs representare images of small trees,signatures and numbers around them. If in this forest(or parts of the forest) are dominated by conifers,small Christmas trees are drawn on a green background, and if deciduous trees predominate, small birches, which have the right sidethe crown is made blackened. If the forest is mixed, a Christmas tree andbirch. Abbreviated signature on the leftsigns indicate what species of conifersny and deciduous trees prevail here.

The fraction to the right of these icons means the following: the numerator of the fraction is the average height of trees in this forest in meters, the denominator is the average thickness of the trunks at the level of a person's head in meters, and the coefficient behind the fraction is the average distance between trees (that is, the density forests).

In the woods they meet glades- long forest corridors. Such glades are cut (cut) especially in order for the forest to be better ventilated and illuminated by the sun. Most often, glades are made mutually perpendicular: some go from north to south, others cross them from west to east. Glades are of different widths: from 2-3 to 10-12 m, and sometimes they are very wide - up to 50 meters or more. Such large clearings are made for laying gas pipelines, oil pipelines, highways and railways, high-voltage power lines through forests.

Glades divide the forest into quarters, and each forest quarter has its own number. At the crossroads of glades, there are quarter pillars, on the edges of which these numbers are written in paint. There is not a road along every clearing, there are very heavily overgrown clearings, along which it is even more difficult to wade than directly through the forest. But the topographic sign of the clearing exactly matches the sign of a simple dirt road - a thin black dashed line. A number is also put here, showing its width in meters.

For young growth forests, in addition to the light green background, an additional fill sign is used: small black circles run in rows along the background, but their rows are located at 45 ° to the map frames .

Orchards are also depicted on a green background with rows of small black circles, but here their rows run at 90 ° to the map frames.

Forest felling shown on a white background. The mark filling the contour of the punching line is staggered black vertical strokes with a short black horizontal stroke at the bottom end.

Sign woodlands also, as a rule, is located on a white background in the form of black circles with a ponytail at the bottom, which is always directed to the east.

Large-scale topographic maps show separate groupsshrubs in the form of a black circle with three thickened black dots along the outer edge. This is an out-of-scale sign. If shrubs occupy significant areas of the territory on the ground, they are already shown by a contour (dotted line), which is filled inside with a light green background, and circles with three dots are scattered in random order over the background.

Narrow strips of wood are depicted on cards without a green background as a chain of black circles. This is an off-scale sign of a forest belt. If a strip of forest is wide enough for a given map scale, then it is represented by the usual forest sign. There are also narrow strips of shrubs (hedges). They are depicted by an off-scale sign - a chain of small black circles alternating with thickened dots.

Along the roads, specially planted trees are often found, forming a kind of green corridor along the road (alley). These are the roadsides, which are shown on the maps as small black circles on the sides of the road.

Freestanding trees(not in the forest, but in the field), if they are large and have the meaning of landmarks (that is, they are clearly visible from all sides at a sufficiently large distance), they are also indicated on topographic maps by their off-scale sign .

Meadows have their own sign: small black quotation marks are put in a checkerboard pattern inside the contour bordering the meadow. Meadows can occupy very large areas, they can stretch in narrow ribbons in the floodplains of rivers. Small glades in the forest are also meadows. The sign of a passable swamp is almost always combined with a sign of a meadow, because such a swamp is always covered with grass.

At the edges of the villages are vegetable gardens. The sign of the vegetable garden in the recent past has undergone a major change: the old sign was a slanting shading with solid and dashed black lines going in one direction or another. New vegetable garden sign - gray background.

The last mark of this group, the mark arable land,

It is a white background with a black dotted outline.

Group No. 5. Relief

The surface of our planet is very rarely flat. On any plain, there are always at least small elevations and depressions: hills , burial mounds, hollows, ravines, pits, cliffs along the banks of rivers. All this taken together represents the relief of the area. Relief is a set of irregularities on the earth's surface. All irregularities can be easily divided into two types - convexity and concavity. Convexities are considered to be positive forms, and concavities are considered to be negative relief forms. Positive landforms include: a mountain, a hill (hillock), a ridge, a hill, a mound, a dune, a sandy movable hill); to negative - a depression, lowland, valley, gorge, ravine, ravine, ravine, pit. Forms: reliefs always alternate in space: any positive shape smoothly or abruptly turns into negative, and negative sharply or smoothly turns into an adjacent positive one.

It is customary to share flat terrain by the nature of the relief by three type:slightly intersected, moderately intersected and strongly intersected locality. The degree of ruggedness depends both on the frequency of alternation of protuberances and concavities (ascents and descents), and on their height and steepness: where the “ruggedness” of the relief is stronger, that is, where ravines, hills, hollows, gullies are more common, and where they are especially high (deep) and their slopes are steeper - there the terrain is considered to be highly rugged.

Each landform has three parts (elements): a top or gold (for positive forms), a bottom (for negative ones), a sole (for positive ones), an edge or edge (for negative ones), and slopes or walls for both.

Slopes- a common element of both negative and positive landforms. They are steep, steep (sharp) and gentle (smooth). Depending on which slopes prevail in a given area near the hills and lowlands, we say: here is a soft and smooth relief or - here is a sharp, hard relief.

There are two main ways of conveying landforms on maps: smooth, soft forms are depicted by so-called horizontals - thin brown lines, and sharp, hard forms - with a special line with teeth. These teeth, like any triangles, have a base and apex. Where the tops of the teeth are directed, the slope goes down there - it goes down an almost vertical cliff. To make it easy to distinguish a steep slope of natural origin from artificial cliffs on the map, the jagged lines of the cliffs are made in two colors - brown (natural cliffs along river valleys, ravines, etc.) and black (artificial embankments, dams, slopes of quarries, etc. .). Next to the signs of the cliffs, a number is put, showing the length of the cliff in meters.

Pits and burial mounds may be naturalmi and artificial. They may bevery deep (high), but small in area, and then they have tomap off-scalesigns. If they are significantdimensions by area, then showing them are large-scale signs (Fig. 74). The number next to the sign of the mound and the pit also denotes their depth and height.

Embankments and cuttings along the road are also depicted on maps with a jagged line, but in black, since they are artificial structures. Where the teeth are directed with their sharp ends to the sides of the railway or highway bed, the road goes along the embankment, and where they are directed the other way round, to the road bed, along the notch. The numbers indicate the highest elevation of these slopes.

At the sign career, as a rule, the cards are given an abbreviated signature, specifying what exactly is being mined in this quarry.

More complex, hard landforms are ravines, which are formed in loose sedimentary rocks under the action of soil erosion by streams of rainwater and during snow melting. Ravines are a "living" phenomenon, they are born, grow and gradually die. While the ravine is "young" (it is called gully), its slopes are very steep, but gradually they crumble - they flatten out, overgrow with sod, bushes, the ravine stops growing and turns into beam (hollowwell, dell). The ravine has a top, bottom and mouth. From one ravine to the sides can depart side ravines with their tops - their are called screwdrivers ravine. But screwdrivers, in turn, canmultiply, forming intricate ramifications.

Small river

Drying River

Sea, lake

well

spring, key

glades

Orchard

felling woodland

shrubs

Upsetting

Meadows

Rigid landforms

Pits and burial mounds

Embankments and cuttings

Career

Two typical representatives of soft landforms - antipodes Hill(bump) and hollow(depression). You cannot show them on the map with a jagged line, since their slopes are gentle, smooth.

If you "cut" horizontally, cut the figure of the hill into even "slices", then the entire slope of the hill will be girded with several closed lines of "cuts" - horizontals. And if you then draw these lines on paper, you get a figure that gives an idea of ​​the relief (Fig. 78). You just need to show with short strokes on the horizontals in which direction the slopes go down, since the exact same figure will turn out if you dissect the hollow with horizontal planes. Such strokes, which show the direction downward from the horizontal, are called bergstrikami or skatogo indicators (in German "berg" - mountain).

This method of depicting soft landforms on maps and oncalled - the method of contour lines. Beyond the beginning of the cutting edge of the horizonthe plane of the Baltic Sea level is taken as theThe next cutting plane is drawn, for example, 10 m higherthe level of the Baltic Sea, after it another 10 m in height - the second secant plane, then, 10 m higher than it, - the third (already at a height30 m above sea level), etc. This distance (h) between the planes intersecting the relief is called the height of the relief section and can be different: 2.5 m, 5 m, 10 m, 20 m, etc.

Each cutting plane will give on the map its own closed cross-sectional line of the relief - a horizontal, and all together they will give a complete drawing of contour lines - an overall picture of the terrain. But since there will be a lot of contour lines on the map, in order not to get confused in them, to make it easier to distinguish and trace them, we decided to highlight some of the contours a little - to make every fifth one thicker. Then the horizontal lines on the map, as they say, are better read. Thus, with a section height of, for example, 5 m, the thickened horizontal line will be a horizontal line located 25 m above the level of the Baltic Sea; the next thickened one - 50 m above sea level, etc.

In addition, on some contours, in convenient places, brown numbers are set that indicate the height of this contour in meters above sea level, or, as it is customary in topography to call this value, the elevation of the contour. The very figure of the elevation of one or another horizontal, in addition to the bergstrikas, helps to understand in which direction the slope goes down: where is the bottom, the slope goes down there, and where the top is, it rises there. Marks, in addition, are placed on the tops of mountains and hills. The side of the hill, which is steeper, will be depicted on the map by horizontals located close to each other, and the other, gently sloping side of the hill, on the contrary, will be depicted by sparse horizontals.

There is always a depression between the tops of two adjacent hills having a common bottom. This lowering is called a saddle. And under the saddle on
slopes of hills most often there are gullies and ravines - hard forms of relief are always difficult to combine with
soft.

Group No. 6. Special signs

They try to place the captions of names on maps so that they do not cover important objects, and, at the same time, they still have to make, for example, a break in the signs of the road network where the signature of a settlement or the name of some other is superimposed on the road sign. local subject.

The inscriptions of the names of settlements are always made horizontal (west-east direction) in different fonts - at some points the letters are fatter and taller, at others they are thinner and have a slight slope. Through such a difference, certain information is communicated to the card reader: an approximate
the number of inhabitants in the village. Where there are more residents, there is a larger signature. Under each name of the settlement there are numbers that indicate the number of buildings (courtyards) in this village or settlement. Here and there are letters next to these numbers.

"SS", denoting that the village council is located in this settlement, that is, the local authority.

On their home-made maps and diagrams, tourists often enter special symbols showing the route traveled by a tourist group and its direction, crossing routes, overnight stays and resting places, places for daytime breaks for lunch, and places of interest on the route.

3. Consolidation of the studied material.

1. What are conventional signs?

2. How many groups can the topographic symbols be divided into?

3. List these groups?

4. List what is linear?

5. List what are the areal species?

6. How many groups are topographic signs divided into?

4. Summing up the results of the lesson.

The teacher draws conclusions, evaluates the activities of those involved, gives instructions for the next lesson.

5. Organizational moment.

The teacher tells further plans for the coming week.

Sooner or later, along the way, you will need to get landmarks and understand the local geography. Geographic layouts will help determine the direction of movement and approximate geolocation. To do this, you need to correctly read the symbols on the terrain plan. They were created to facilitate understanding and detailed transfer of all landmarks on paper.

For orienteering, for example, the issued maps contain a meager supply of markings, but it is still possible to determine the location from them. Notes exist on all types of maps, and are basic logical elements intended for displaying information and its subsequent interpretation. But what exactly they represent, and how to read them correctly - we will talk about this in today's article.

Symbols on the terrain plan

The first problem that anyone who has ever drawn a geographic model faced is how to mark complex logical elements (for example, a tree)? It takes a long time to individually draw each detail, and you can use a special symbol or a previously agreed image. According to this principle, the symbols on the terrain plan work (Figure 1).

A list of predefined images is created that are used to mark certain types of terrain and its details. This makes it easier to work with the map, and gives a more complete picture of what is happening. This approach is used in all maps, and all symbols look approximately the same.

How do I convert a familiar object to a character image? Use the standard symbol table to mark up the location. In case you do not find the one you need, then create the symbol yourself. Draw outlines that reflect the essence of the object as much as possible, then label it in the legend and place it in a suitable place. Placement plays a role and should be done according to the rules.

The symbol must be positioned at a scaled distance from the three nearest familiar points. For example, you know exactly the distance from a pine tree, a rotten oak stump and an old hut to a lake where crayfish are found. Indicate the coordinates of each of the landmarks, and then draw a straight line from them to the location of the reservoir. Then, at the resulting intersection, place the lake icon. A similar action can be done with mountains, hills and rivers, substituting them in place of any of the variables. Symbols on the terrain plan do not require the strictest reliability. Although the triangulation method provides high accuracy, there are other ways. One of them is drawing markers on a whim.

Figure 1. This is how the terrain plans look

This approach provides an approximate initial orientation, but does not pretend to be accurate. Often, in geography lessons, primary school teachers ask their students to draw symbols of a terrain plan, grade 3 falls on the period of studying basic knowledge of marking, and develops spatial thinking.

What conventional signs are on the terrain plan

There are several types of basic markings that are standard for all types of maps. This makes it easier to create a drawing within the framework of already generally accepted standards. Reading them will not be difficult, because all of them were developed with an expectation of easy recognition. In some types of maps, the legend of the terrain plan in the figures may have a different color or contour outline (Figure 2).

The following qualities can be located next to the marks - height, depth (for crevices and reservoirs), width. In the case of reservoirs, it is indicated separately whether they dry up, what kind of fish is found in them. For forest areas, dangerous animals or a common type of game can be indicated.

Geographic designations on the terrain plan of settlements are entered together with the number of inhabitants in them, and the size of the name is directly related to the population. However, it should be borne in mind that data on villages and the number of their inhabitants are rapidly becoming outdated. Designations on the terrain plan of a geographic map have a special requirement for pointers. When making a layout with large scales, a scale point is applied in the center of the picture (symbol or circle). Its purpose is to indicate the exact location of a specific object.

Figure 2. Basic symbols

Understanding the symbols of the terrain plan makes the world around us simpler and clearer. Both generalizing markers are used to indicate the commonality of objects (forest, thicket, embankment) and single markers (booth, factory, gas station). Below are the details of the area plan - signs, designations of objects and their subsequent interpretation.

Park designation on the terrain plan

This includes all types of public parks, squares, plantings. It is a complex sign, and usually marks a collection of specific landscape details (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Designation of the park on the plan

The designation of the park on the terrain plan can be carried out in one of the following ways:

1. A monolithic fill of a specific color (most often light green) with outlined borders. The name of the park will be inscribed in the central part of the figure. Applicable at all scales.
2. The miniature of the park, which reflects its internal structure - paths, the location of plantings, exits. Used on large-scale, rough, maps.

Road designation on the terrain plan

Highways, highways, paths, paved roads and everything connected with them. Depicted on a true scale. Marks forks, crossings (Figure 4).

Road designation on the terrain plan:

1. Roads of minor importance are drawn with a dotted line, or dull gray paint.
2. Paths of medium importance are plotted in solid form.
3. Roads of high importance (highways, highways) are drawn in bold solid with two parallel black borders.

Figure 4. Symbols for the designation of roads

The importance is a relative value, and on a small scale of a thick one, route roads can be noted, while branches from them are a small solid one. The location of the roads should correspond to their real position, length and shape on an appropriate scale.

Stadium designation on the terrain plan

An amateur, professional sports facility, a hippodrome and a stone forum. All of this falls under the definition of a stadium (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Stadiums are usually marked only on specific plans

Stadium designation on the terrain plan:

1. If it is a sports football arena, then the outer circle is drawn as a building, and the inner part of the planting is drawn in green.
2. The amateur soccer or training field is painted solid green, with optional outlines on the pitch.
3. On a medium-scale map, an image of the stadium is allowed as a miniature, while maintaining the proportions.
4. A name is added to any character.

Designation of a well on a plan of the area

Wells are of the type deep, natural, technical and clogged. The content of the area plan, signs of designation of objects and their interpretation includes sources of drinking water. Each of them is provided with a note about functionality, the depth of the liquid (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Symbols for the designation of wells and other water bodies

Well designation on the terrain plan:

1. On large-scale maps - a circle with a dot in the middle and the letter "K" next to it. The dot defines the exact location.
2. On the smaller ones, there is a miniature that looks like a real well.
3. If the well is equipped with a wind turbine, a stick rises from the circle, at the end of which is a star-shaped symbol.
4. Concrete lined and equipped with a lifting motor are marked as a circle within a square.

Swamp designation on the terrain plan

Swamps, backwaters, viscous places also fall into this category. In some plans of the area, signs denoting objects of swampy nature are characterized by inaccurate miniatures (Figure 7).

Swamps are divided according to the level of passability, which is reflected in the method of their application.

The designation of the swamp on the terrain plan will look like one of the following images:

1. Passable swamp during the warm season. The main vegetation consists of reeds and moss. The depth is less than half a meter. It is depicted as a canvas of parallel blue lines with a wide gap.
2. Rough swamp. The depth ranges from half a meter to a meter. Appearance - a canvas of parallel stripes with an average indentation.
3. Impenetrable swamps. Depth from one meter to five. Depicted as continuous parallel stripes, with vegetation / soil / root patches.

Figure 7. Legend of swamps

Anthill designation on the terrain plan

The anthill is a good natural landmark. Its designation on the terrain plan, conventional signs and marks are not typical for large maps. The northern part of the anthill will always be insulated, while the sunnier southern part will be light and filled with passages. An anthill adjacent to any natural fence will always point to the south.

Anthill designation on the terrain plan:

1. On larger maps, it is marked with a cross or a brown oval with a scale point. As, for example, in sports orienteering. In the legend it is marked with a number and a text name.
2. On small drawings, the image of a brown circle or the signing of a certain point is allowed.
3. Local parcels can be specified as thumbnails in schematic drawings.

House symbol on the terrain plan

A warehouse, a shopping center, an administration, a high-rise building, a private house and even a barn - all buildings are depicted as a plot separated from the rest of the background by color and contours. The palette ranges from light orange to gray, depending on the purpose of the building. New buildings, for example, are painted over with light red (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Signs for the designation of houses and other buildings on the plan

House designation on the terrain plan:

1. Symbolic. A miniature similar to a building or house, with a point of interest.
2. In Soviet drawings, a light red rectangle was used for the apartment building.
3. Now it is depicted as a gray or yellow rectangle with the name of a noteworthy object and its address.

The designation of the dam on the ground plan

Submarine and surface. Passage, impassable, as well as material according to the first letters: Stone, CONCRETE, Reinforced concrete, Wooden, EARTH. The length and width are also marked in meters. The mark of the upper water level in the numerators of the fraction, the lower - in the denominator.

Dam designation on the terrain plan:

1. Two parallel lines. Where one solid with notches shows the location of the main support-soil part, and the dotted one - water.
2. With curved ends that come out onto the shore, they are passable.
3. Without ends and in the water area - underwater, with indications of the upper and lower water levels.

The designation of the railway on the terrain plan

Large highways, medium and small. Also forks, stations and direction of travel. Optionally, the indication of the time intervals for the movement of the train (Figure 9).

Figure 9. Symbols for the designation of railways

The designation of the railway on the terrain plan:

1. Thick stripe with intersecting perpendicular lines for local small-scale drawings.
2. A thin stripe with two edges, intersecting it perpendicularly for medium scales.
3. The number of lanes indicates the number of tracks and directions of travel. For example, a solid black line with two stripes perpendicular to it is a two-track track.

Symbols of trees on the plan of the area

Deciduous and coniferous forests are marked with an indication of their average height in the forest. The cut ones are not shown or the area is marked with dots. Approaches to the forest are depicted as a line with triangles leading into the forest (Figure 10).

Figure 10. With the help of such signs, you can mark trees on the plan

Symbols of trees on the terrain plan:

1. Solid color fill with a small number of trees of a certain type - a sparse, sparse forest.
2. Solid fill with frequent patterns - dense forest.