Second half of the twentieth century. In the second half of the twentieth century
§ 96. Leading capitalist countries in the second half of the twentieth century.
The rise of the United States to the world's leading power. The war led to dramatic shifts in the balance of power in the world. The United States not only suffered little in the war, but also received significant profits. Coal and oil production, electricity generation, and steel smelting have increased in the country. The basis of this economic recovery was the large military orders of the government. The United States has taken a leading position in the world economy. A factor in ensuring the economic and scientific and technical hegemony of the United States was the import of ideas and specialists from other countries. Already on the eve and during the war years, many scientists emigrated to the United States. After the war, a large number of German specialists and scientific and technical documentation were taken out of Germany. The military conjuncture contributed to the development of agriculture. There was a great demand for food and raw materials in the world, which created a favorable position in the agricultural market even after 1945. The explosions of atomic bombs in the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki became a terrible demonstration of the increased power of the United States. In 1945, President Harry Truman openly said that the burden of responsibility for the further leadership of the world fell on America. In the conditions of the beginning of the Cold War, the United States came up with the concepts of "containment" and "rejection" of communism, aimed against the USSR. US military bases cover a large part of the world. The advent of peacetime did not stop state intervention in the economy. Despite praise for free enterprise, economic development after Roosevelt's New Deal was no longer conceivable without the regulatory role of the state. Under the control of the state, the transition of industry to peaceful rails was carried out. A program was implemented for the construction of roads, power plants, etc. The Council of Economic Advisers under the President made recommendations to the authorities. The social programs of Roosevelt's New Deal era were preserved. The new policy was called "fair course". Along with this, measures were taken to limit the rights of trade unions (the Taft-Hartley law). At the same time, at the initiative of the senator J. McCarthy persecution of people accused of "anti-American activities" (McCarthyism) unfolded. Many people became victims of the "witch hunt", including such famous people as Ch. Chaplin. Within the framework of such a policy, the buildup of armaments, including nuclear ones, continued. The formation of the military-industrial complex (MIC) is being completed, in which the interests of officials, the tops of the army and the military industry were combined.
50-60s 20th century were generally favorable for the development of the economy, there was its rapid growth, associated primarily with the introduction of the achievements of the scientific and technological revolution. During these years, the struggle of the Negro (African American) population for their rights achieved great success in the country. Protests led by M.L King, led to the prohibition of racial segregation. By 1968, laws were passed to ensure the equality of blacks. However, achieving real equality turned out to be much more difficult than legal, influential forces resisted this, which found expression in the murder of Qing.
Other changes in the social sphere were also carried out.
Became president in 1961 J. Kennedy pursued a policy of "new frontiers" aimed at creating a society of "general welfare" (the elimination of inequality, poverty, crime, the prevention of nuclear war). Powerful social laws were passed to make it easier for the poor to have access to education, health care, and so on.
In the late 60s - early 70s. xx c. The US is getting worse.
This was due to the escalation of the Vietnam War, which ended in the biggest defeat in US history, as well as to the global economic crisis in the early 1970s. These events were one of the factors that led to the policy of détente: under President R. Nixon The first arms control treaties were signed between the US and the USSR.
In the early 80s of the XX century. a new economic crisis began.
Under these conditions, the President R. Reagan proclaimed a policy called the "conservative revolution". Social spending on education, medicine, and pensions was reduced, but taxes were also reduced. The United States has taken a course towards the development of free enterprise, reducing the role of the state in the economy. This course caused many protests, but helped to improve the situation in the economy. Reagan advocated an increase in the arms race, but in the late 80s of the twentieth century. at the suggestion of the leader of the USSR M. S. Gorbachev, the process of a new reduction in armaments began. It accelerated in an atmosphere of unilateral concessions from the USSR.
The collapse of the USSR and the entire socialist camp contributed to the longest period of economic recovery in the United States in the 90s. 20th century under the President at Clinton. The United States has become the only center of power in the world, began to claim world leadership. However, at the end of the XX-beginning of the XXI century. the economic situation in the country worsened. Terrorist attacks have become a serious test for the United States 11 September 2001 Terrorist attacks in New York and Washington cost the lives of over 3,000 people.
Leading countries of Western Europe.
The Second World War undermined the economy of all European countries. Enormous forces had to be spent on its restoration. Painful phenomena in these countries were caused by the collapse of the colonial system, the loss of colonies. So, for Great Britain, the results of the war, according to W. Churchill, became a "triumph and tragedy." England finally turned into a "junior partner" of the United States. By the beginning of the 60s of the twentieth century. England has lost almost all of its colonies. A serious problem since the 70s. 20th century became an armed struggle in Northern Ireland. The economy of Great Britain could not revive for a long time after the war, until the beginning of the 50s. 20th century the card system was preserved. The Laborites, who came to power after the war, nationalized a number of industries and expanded social programs. Gradually the situation in the economy improved. In the 5060s. 20th century there was strong economic growth. However, the crises of 1974-1975 and 1980-1982 inflicted heavy damage on the country. The Conservative government that came to power in 1979, headed by M. Thatcher defended the "true values of British society". In practice, this was reflected in the privatization of the public sector, the reduction of state regulation and the promotion of private enterprise, the reduction of taxes and social spending. In France after the Second World War, under the influence of the communists, who sharply increased their authority during the years of the struggle against fascism, a number of large industries were nationalized, and the property of German accomplices was confiscated. The social rights and guarantees of the people have been expanded. In 1946, a new constitution was adopted, establishing the regime of the Fourth Republic. However, foreign policy events (wars in Vietnam, Algeria) made the situation in the country extremely unstable.
On a wave of discontent in 1958, General C. de Gaulle. He held a referendum that adopted a new constitution that dramatically expanded the rights of the president. The period of the Fifth Republic began. Charles de Gaulle managed to solve a number of acute problems: the French withdrew from Indochina, and all the colonies in Africa received freedom. Initially, de Gaulle tried to use military force to keep Algeria, which was the homeland for a million Frenchmen, for France. However, the escalation of hostilities, the intensification of repressions against the participants in the national liberation war only led to an increase in the resistance of the Algerians. In 1962, Algeria gained independence, and most of the French fled from there to France. An attempted military coup by forces opposed to leaving Algeria was suppressed in the country. From the mid-60s of the XX century. France's foreign policy became more independent, it withdrew from the NATO military organization, and an agreement was concluded with the USSR.
At the same time, the situation in the economy improved. However, contradictions persisted in the country, which led to mass demonstrations by students and workers in 1968. Under the influence of these performances, de Gaulle resigned in 1969. his successor J Pompidou retained the old political course. In the 70s. 20th century the economy became less stable. In the 1981 presidential elections, the leader of the socialist party was elected F. Mitterrand. After the victory of the socialists in the parliamentary elections, they formed their own government (with the participation of the communists). A number of reforms were carried out in the interests of the general population (reduction of the working day, increase in holidays), the rights of trade unions were expanded, and a number of industries were nationalized. However, the resulting economic problems forced the government to follow the path of austerity. The role of right-wing parties, with the governments of which Mitterrand was supposed to cooperate, increased, the reforms were suspended. A serious problem was the strengthening of nationalist sentiments in France due to the massive influx of emigrants into the country. The mood of the SUPPORTERS of the slogan "France for the French" is expressed by the National Front, headed by F - M. Le Lenom, which at times receives a significant number of votes. The influence of the left forces has declined. In the 1995 elections, the right-wing politician Gollist became president J Chirac.
After the emergence of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949, its government was headed by the leader of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) Adenauer, who remained in power until 1960. He pursued a policy of creating a socially oriented market economy with a significant role of state regulation. After the completion of the period of economic recovery, the development of the German economy proceeded at a very rapid pace, which was facilitated by US assistance. Germany has become an economically powerful power. V political life There was a struggle between the CDU and the Social Democrats. At the end of the 60s. 20th century A Social Democrat-dominated government came to power, led by W. Brandt. Many transformations were carried out in the interests of the general population. In foreign policy, Brandt normalized relations with the USSR, Poland, and the GDR. However, the economic crises of the 70s. xx c. led to a deterioration in the situation of the country. In 1982, the leader of the CDU came to power G. Kohl. His government reduced state regulation of the economy, carried out privatization. Favorable conjuncture contributed to an increase in the pace of development. There was a unification of the FRG and the GDR. by the end of the 90s. xx c. new financial and economic problems arose. In 1998, the elections were won by the Social Democrats, led by G. Schroeder.
In the mid 70s. 20th century the last authoritarian regimes have disappeared in Europe. In 1974, the military carried out a coup in Portugal, overthrowing the dictatorial regime A. Salazar. Democratic reforms were carried out, a number of leading industries were nationalized, and independence was granted to the colonies. In Spain after the death of the dictator F. Franco in 1975 the restoration of democracy began. The democratization of society was supported by King Juan Carlos 1. Over time, significant success was achieved in the economy, and the standard of living of the population increased. After the end of World War II, a civil war broke out in Greece (1946-1949) between pro-communist and pro-Western forces, supported by England and the United States. It ended with the defeat of the communists. In 1967, a military coup took place in the country and the regime of "black colonels" was established. By limiting democracy, the "black colonels" at the same time expanded the social support of the population. The regime's attempt to annex Cyprus led to its fall in 1974.
European integration. In the second half of the twentieth century. there are trends towards integration of countries in many regions, especially in Europe. Back in 1949, the Council of Europe came into existence. In 1957, 6 countries, led by France and the Federal Republic of Germany, signed the Treaty of Rome on the establishment of the European Economic Community (EEC) - the Common Market, which removes customs barriers. In the 70s - 80s. xx c. the number of EEC members increased to 12. In 1979, the first direct elections to the European Parliament were held. In 1991, as a result of long negotiations and decades of rapprochement between the EEC countries, documents on monetary, economic and political unions were signed in the Dutch city of Maastricht. In 1995, the EEC, which already included 15 states, was transformed into the European Union (EU). Since 2002, a single currency, the euro, has been finally introduced in 12 EU countries, which strengthened the economic positions of these countries in the fight against the USA and Japan. The treaties provide for the expansion of the supranational powers of the EU. The main policy directions will be determined by the European Council. Decisions require the consent of 8 out of 12 countries. In the future, the creation of a single European government is not ruled out.
Japan. The Second World War had the most severe consequences for Japan - the destruction of the economy, the loss of colonies, the occupation. Under US pressure, the Japanese emperor agreed to limit his power. In 1947, the Constitution was adopted, which expanded democratic rights and secured the country's peaceful status (military spending, according to the Constitution, cannot exceed 1% of all budget expenditures). The right-wing Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) is almost always in power in Japan. Japan very quickly managed to restore its economy. From the 50s. 20th century its sharp rise begins, which has received the name of the Japanese "economic miracle". This "miracle" was, in addition to a favorable environment, based on the peculiarities of the organization of the economy and the mentality of the Japanese, as well as a small share of military spending. Diligence, unpretentiousness, corporate and communal traditions of the population allowed the Japanese economy to compete successfully. A course was set for the development of knowledge-intensive industries, which made Japan a leader in the production of electronics. However, at the turn of the XX and XXI centuries. Japan faced significant problems. Increasingly, corruption-related scandals broke out around the LDP. The pace of economic growth slowed down, competition from the "new industrial countries" (South Korea, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia), as well as China, intensified. China also poses a military threat to Japan.
At the international level, the ideals of the post-war world were declared in the documents of the Soviet Union, established in 1945. United Nations. Its founding conference was held in San Francisco from April 25 to June 26, 1945. October 24, 1945 is considered the official date of the UN's formation, when its Charter was ratified. The preamble (introductory part) of the UN Charter says: "We, the peoples of the United Nations, determined to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war"
From November 1945 to October 1946, the International Military Tribunal for German war criminals sat in the city of Nuremberg. The main defendants appeared before him, including G. Goering, I. Ribbentrop, V. Keitel and others. The memory of the deaths of millions of people during the war caused a desire to establish and protect human rights and freedoms as a special value. In December 1948, the UN General Assembly adopted Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
However, the implementation of the intended goals was not an easy task. The real events of the subsequent decades did not always develop in accordance with the predetermined ideals.
The liberation struggle of the peoples of Europe and Asia against the occupiers and their accomplices during the war years was not limited to the task of restoring the pre-war order. In the countries of Eastern Europe and a number of Asian countries, in the course of liberation, the governments of the National (Popular) Front came to power. At that time, they most often represented coalitions of anti-fascist, anti-militarist parties and organizations. Communists and social democrats already played an active role in them.
By the end of the 1940s, in most of these countries, the Communists were able to concentrate all power in their hands. In some cases, for example, in Yugoslavia, Romania, one-party systems were established, in others - in Poland, Czechoslovakia and other countries - the existence of other parties was allowed. Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, the German Democratic Republic, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, led by the Soviet Union, formed a special bloc. They were joined by several Asian states: Mongolia, North Vietnam, North Korea, China, and in the 1960s - Cuba. This community was first called "socialist camp", then - "socialist system" and, finally, "socialist commonwealth". The post-war world was divided into "Western" and "Eastern" blocs, or, as they were then called in Soviet socio-political literature, "capitalist" and "socialist" systems. It was bipolar(having two poles, personified by the USA and the USSR) peace. How did relations develop between the states of the West and the East?
11.2 Economic development
Before all the states participating in the war, the tasks of demobilizing multimillion-strong armies, employing the demobilized, transferring industry to peacetime production, and restoring military destruction were acutely faced. The economies of the defeated countries, especially Germany and Japan, suffered the most. In most European countries, the card distribution system was maintained, and there was an acute shortage of food, housing, and industrial goods. Only in 1949 did the industrial and agricultural production of capitalist Europe restore its pre-war level.
Gradually, two approaches emerged. In France, England, Austria, a model of state regulation has developed, which implies direct state intervention in the economy. A number of industries and banks were nationalized here. So, in 1945, the Laborites carried out the nationalization of the English bank, a little later - the coal mining industry. The gas and electric power industries, transport, railways, and part of the airlines were also transferred to state ownership. A large public sector was formed as a result of nationalization in France. It included coal industry enterprises, Renault plants, five major banks, and major insurance companies. In 1947, a general plan for the modernization and reconstruction of industry was adopted, which laid the foundation for state planning for the development of the main sectors of the economy.
The problem of reconversion in the USA was solved differently. There, private property relations were much stronger, and therefore the emphasis was only on indirect methods of regulation through taxes and credit. Priority attention in the United States and Western Europe began to be given to labor relations, the basis of the entire social life of society. However, this problem was viewed differently everywhere. In the United States, the Taft-Hartley Act was passed, which introduced strict state control over the activities of trade unions. In resolving other issues, the state followed the path of expanding and strengthening the social infrastructure. The key in this regard was the “fair course” program of H. Truman, put forward in 1948, which provided for an increase in the minimum wage, the introduction of medical insurance, the construction of cheap housing for low-income families, etc. Similar measures were taken by the Labor government of C. Attlee in England, where since 1948 a system of free medical care has been introduced. Progress in the social sphere was also evident in other Western European countries. In most of them, the trade unions, which were then on the rise, were actively involved in the struggle to solve basic social problems. The result was an unprecedented increase in government spending on social insurance, science, education and training.
The United States was far ahead of all other capitalist countries in terms of the rate of development and volume of industrial output. In 1948, the volume of American industrial production was 78% higher than the pre-war level. The United States then produced more than 55% of the industrial output of the entire capitalist world and concentrated almost 75% of the world's gold reserves in its hands. The products of American industry penetrated into markets where the goods of Germany, Japan or the US allies England and France had previously dominated.
The United States was secured by a new system of international monetary and financial relations. In 1944, at the UN Conference on Monetary and financial matters in the city of Bretton Woods (USA), it was decided to create the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which became intergovernmental institutions that regulate monetary and credit relations between their capitalist states. The participants of the conference agreed to establish a fixed gold content of the dollar, on which the rates of other currencies were guided. The US-dominated International Bank for Reconstruction and Development provided IMF members with loans and credits to develop the economy and maintain balance of payments equilibrium.
An important measure to stabilize the economic life of post-war Europe was the "Marshall Plan" (named after the US Secretary of State) - US assistance to Western countries for economic recovery. For 1948–1952 this aid amounted to $13 billion. By the beginning of the 1950s. the countries of Western Europe and Japan largely overcame the consequences of the war. Their economic development accelerated. A rapid economic recovery began. They restored their economy and began to overtake rivals Germany and Japan. The rapid pace of their development began to be called an economic miracle.
The countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe (Poland, the German Democratic Republic, Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Albania), which in the post-war period began to be called simply Eastern Europe, went through dramatic trials. The liberation of Europe from fascism opened the way to the establishment of a democratic system and anti-fascist reforms. A greater or lesser degree of copying the experience of the USSR was typical for all countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe. Although Yugoslavia chose a slightly different variant of socio-economic policy, in its main parameters it represented a variant of totalitarian socialism, but with a greater orientation towards the West.
Political development of the leading industrial countries
IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE XX CENTURY
§ 1. General trends in economic and social
World War II was the most tragic event of the 20th century. It radically changed the balance of power on the planet. Germany, Japan and Italy came out of the war defeated, the economy and financial system of these countries were undermined. The positions of Great Britain and France, previously the leading countries of the West, were greatly weakened.
The defeat of the main centers of fascism and militarism had a huge impact on the development of democratic processes in the countries of the West. The political and social activity of the broad masses of the people grew rapidly. turned wide social movements increased activity of political parties and democratic organizations. The emergence of nuclear and thermonuclear weapons, other types of weapons of mass destruction, constant wars and conflicts in various regions of the planet caused the growth of a mass movement for peace and the prevention of a new world war. In the political history of Western countries, the development of liberal democracy has become the leading direction. Democracy was established in the main countries of Western Europe. In the 1970s, the last fascist regimes collapsed - in Portugal, Greece, Spain, and South Africa.
In the 1980s and 1990s, neoconservatism developed in political life in a number of developed Western countries. He contributed to the weakening of state intervention in the economy, the development of social partnership, and the expansion of inter-farm ties.
In the second half of the 1990s, leftist forces began to regain lost positions. After the spring 1997 parliamentary elections in England, and then in France, the left-wing forces in Western Europe further strengthened their positions. In 1997, a total of 15 member states of the European Union in 13 at the helm of the executive power were center-left parties or coalitions with the participation of socialists and communists.
All post-war years in the countries of the West there was a process of expansion of suffrage. All types of political discrimination against African Americans in the United States were abolished. New principles of relations between the government and the opposition were taking shape.
An important feature of the post-war economic development
The development of the Western countries is the rapid and dynamic progress in all spheres of the economy. The average annual growth rates of GNP (gross national product) in Germany and Italy grew 4 times, France - more than doubled, Great Britain - almost doubled. The Marshall Plan, the expansion of the domestic market, the change in consumption patterns, the rapid growth of international trade - all these were important factors in the economic recovery.
Scientific and technological progress had a huge impact on post-war development. There was a qualitative restructuring of all sectors of the economy based on the introduction of the latest achievements of scientific and technological progress. Mass production of radio electronics products, new means of communication, plastics and artificial fibers began. Jet aviation and nuclear energy developed rapidly, and the concern of states and governments was to support investment in the latest industries. Special attention devoted to the development of fundamental and applied science. Consumer demand was stimulated.
Rapid economic progress in the 1950s and 1960s qualitatively changed the face of Western countries. A noticeable phenomenon in the post-war economic life of Western countries was the rapid development of the manufacturing sector.
Having made a powerful breakthrough in economic development, Japan has taken the second place in the world.
Germany became the first power in Europe. At the turn of the 1970s and 1980s, a change in economic priorities began. Even more significant changes in Western countries are associated with the technological revolution. Since the mid-1970s, the problem of carrying out profound qualitative changes in the structure of the economy, technological re-equipment of production on the basis of the latest achievements of scientific and technological revolution has come to the fore. This process continues at the present time, however, the developed countries of the West made a powerful breakthrough, primarily in the late 70s and 80s.
Structural restructuring was accompanied by the rapid introduction of science-intensive technologies that make it possible to save materials, energy and labor, use robotics, and organize unique automated production in advanced industries. Achievements of the latest technology entered the life and life of people. The mass production of computers and the reduction in their price made them affordable for many families. A real computer boom has begun. This allowed access to any information to a huge mass of people.
The leading role in the world economy and world economic relations began to be played by transnational corporations (TNCs), which have a production and marketing base in many countries at once. The core of TNCs are large American companies.
In the last decade, a specific variant of the internationalization of the economic, political and cultural life of mankind has been rapidly developing - neoliberal globalization.
Since 1975, the G-7 meetings, held annually since 1975, have become a form of coordinating and solving the economic and political problems of the leading countries.
In the post-war years, specialized UN agencies have been functioning - the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), whose members are the vast majority of countries in the world. Since 1961, there has been an intergovernmental Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), which includes 30 industrialized countries.
The formation of a unique branched system of world economic relations reflects the diversity of the world, both inconsistency and its integrity. Russia, other CIS countries, countries of Eastern Europe, and many developing countries are being drawn into the orbit of these ties. The United States initiated the creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO). Currently, it includes 135 states. The common civilizational basis of development contributes to the expansion of mutually beneficial cooperation, gives hope to all peoples for a better future.
Under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, spiritual values, knowledge, the level of development of education, science and technology have become more important.
The relationship is becoming more and more visible higher education, comprehensive scientific and technological, economic social progress and national welfare. Higher and secondary specialized education is becoming the basis for most professions. A possible result of these changes was a change
public consciousness. Understanding the need for an evolutionary path of development is becoming increasingly important.
Integration played an important role in the development of the economies of Western European countries. This process began with the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1951. It integrated the coal, iron ore and metallurgical industries of six countries. Later, 6 more countries joined the ECSC, and now it controls 100% of coal mining, over 90% of steel and iron production, and about 40% of iron ore mining in Western Europe.
In 1957, an agreement was signed on the creation of an association of the nuclear industry of these countries - the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). In the same year, in Rome, Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg signed an agreement on the formation of the European Economic Community (EEC). Its purpose is to remove restrictions on trade between the participating countries, to ensure the free movement of people, capital, goods and services.
In February 1992, in the Dutch city of Maastricht, the Ministers of Foreign Affairs and Finance of 12 member states of the European Community signed the Treaty on the European Union, which provides for the transformation of the EU into an economic, monetary and political union. The Treaty opens a new stage in the development of European integration. If implemented, by the end of the 20th century, the European Union will, in fact, become an economic "superpower" equal to the United States and significantly superior to Japan.
In 1988, a bilateral free trade agreement was signed between the US and Canada. On December 17, 1992, an agreement was signed between the USA, Canada and Mexico on the creation of the North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA). The United States is actively involving Chile in NAFTA and is taking the initiative to create by 2005 a “free trade zone” that would include 34 countries of North and South America and the Caribbean.
After the Second World War, the most important issue was the post-war order of the world. To solve it, it was necessary to coordinate the positions of all countries participating in the anti-Hitler coalition. It was necessary to implement the measures recorded in the documents signed in Yalta and Potsdam. The preparatory work was entrusted to the Council of Foreign Ministers established at the Potsdam Conference. In July-October 1946, the Paris Peace Conference was held, which considered the draft peace treaties prepared by the Minister of Foreign Affairs with the former European allies of Nazi Germany - Bulgaria, Hungary, Italy, Romania, and Finland. On February 10, 1947 they were signed. The treaties restored the pre-war borders with some modifications. The volume of reparations and the procedure for compensation for damage caused to the allied states were also determined. Political articles obligated to provide all citizens with human rights and fundamental freedoms, to prevent the revival of fascist organizations. The USSR took an active part in resolving all issues. In general, the peace treaties were fair and contributed to the independent, democratic development of the states with which they were concluded. Nevertheless, the differences that emerged made it impossible to settle the German problem peacefully on a mutually acceptable basis. And in 1949 the split of Germany became historical fact. Alienation between the great powers increased. Ideological differences and various doctrines began to play a dominant role in international relations. Western countries were extremely negative about totalitarian socialism. The USSR, in turn, was also hostile to capitalism. The influence of the parties on international relations and on their weaker subjects increased more and more. The USA and the USSR considered themselves leaders placed by the course of history at the head of forces defending various social and economic systems.
The geopolitical situation changed dramatically. The revolution of the 1940s in Eastern Europe, the conclusion by the Soviet Union with the states of this region of treaties on friendship, cooperation and mutual assistance formed a new system of international relations. This system was limited by the framework of states, the development of which proceeded under the conditions of the operation of the Stalinist model of socialism with all its integral features.
The aggravation of relations and the aggravation of the political situation in the world also occurred in connection with the Soviet Union's support for the just struggle of the colonial and dependent countries for their liberation. The metropolises in every possible way hindered the national liberation movement. In 1949, the people's revolution in China won, leading to a radical change in the geopolitical situation in Asia, which increased the anxiety of the United States and other Western countries. All this strengthened the distrust of the two superpowers in each other, exacerbated all the existing contradictions.
A global rivalry between the USSR and the USA emerged. Both Churchill's speech in Fulton on March 5, 1946, and the Truman Doctrine put forward in March 1947 were perceived in the USSR as an open proclamation of a "cold war" that lasted more than 40 years. During all this time, the rivalry between the two great powers did not develop into a hot war, which gave reason to call this period the "cold war". It has drawn the whole planet into itself, split the world into two parts, two military-political and economic groups, two socio-economic systems. The world has become bipolar. A peculiar political logic of this global rivalry has arisen – “whoever is not with us is against us”. In everything and everywhere, each side saw the insidious hand of the enemy.
The Cold War brought militarism in politics and thinking to unprecedented proportions. Everything in world politics began to be evaluated from the point of view of the correlation of military force, the balance of armaments. Western countries adopted a bloc strategy that kept confrontation in international relations for many years. Most of the states that accepted the Marshall Plan signed the North Atlantic Treaty (NATO) in April 1949. A unified armed force was created under the command of American military leaders. The creation of a closed military-political grouping of an ideological character, directed essentially against the USSR and its allies, had a negative impact on the development of international relations.
The US policy "from a position of strength" met with a harsh response from the USSR and caused an aggravation of international tension. In 1949, the US nuclear monopoly was abolished. After the creation of thermonuclear weapons in the 1950s, and after that the means of delivering them to the target (intercontinental ballistic missiles), the USSR made every effort to achieve military-strategic parity with the United States, which was realized at the turn of the 1960s and 1970s. The number of military blocs grew. In 1951 the military-political group ANZUS emerged. A "security treaty" was concluded between the US and Japan. In 1954, the SEATO bloc was created. In 1955, another closed group was formed - the Baghdad Pact. After Iraq left it, this bloc became known as CENTO. Fearing for their security, the USSR and the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe, in response to the agreement of Western countries on the remilitarization of the FRG and its admission to NATO, concluded in May 1955 in Warsaw a multilateral Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance. The signatory states provided for the provision of immediate assistance by all means in the event of an armed attack in Europe against one or more of the Warsaw Treaty member states.
A huge danger to peace on Earth was fraught with international conflicts in various regions, which threatened to escalate them into war. In June 1950, the Korean War broke out and lasted three years. For eight years after the war, France waged war in Indochina. In the autumn of 1956 Great Britain, France and Israel committed aggression against Egypt. In 1958, the United States undertook an armed intervention in Lebanon, and Great Britain - in Jordan. The most dangerous international crisis arose in the autumn of 1962 in connection with the situation around Cuba, which brought mankind to the brink of nuclear war. The Caribbean crisis was resolved thanks to a compromise between the USSR and the USA. The US aggression in Indochina has become protracted. It was the most brutal war of the second half of the 20th century. Vietnam has become a testing ground for the most sophisticated means of warfare, created by highly developed US industrial technologies. The US attempt to involve its allies in the war and give it the character of an international action failed. However, some countries participated in the war on the side of the United States. The enormous assistance rendered to Vietnam by the USSR, the support of the heroic Vietnamese people by all peace-loving forces forced the United States to conclude an agreement on ending the war and restoring peace in Vietnam. The Middle East remained a dangerous hotbed of conflict. The complex contradictions and intransigence of the parties led to several Arab-Israeli wars and for a long time ruled out the possibility of a peaceful settlement in this region.
However, in these difficult decades, humanity has become more and more clearly aware that a new world war is not inevitable, that the efforts of progressive forces can stop humanity's slide into a nuclear catastrophe.
The 1950s and 1960s were marked by an arms race on an unprecedented scale. Huge material, intellectual and other resources were wasted on the development and production of ever new means of warfare. At the same time, there was an extremely acute shortage of them to solve socio-economic problems in most countries of the world. In 1960, the USSR proposed to the Session of the UN General Assembly to consider the main provisions of the treaty on the general and complete disarmament of states under strict international control. Western countries rejected this initiative, however, the first step towards warming international relations was taken. In August 1963 Great Britain, the USSR and the USA signed in Moscow the Treaty Banning Nuclear Tests in the Atmosphere, Outer Space and Under Water.
The ever-increasing arms race, especially nuclear arms, was bringing humanity to a fatal point, and huge efforts were needed to stop this negative process. The active position of the USSR and its allies aimed at improving the international situation, the efforts of the non-aligned movement, the political realism of the leaders of a number of Western countries have brought positive results. From the beginning of the 1970s, international relations entered a phase of detente. In March 1970, the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons came into force. By the beginning of the 1990s, more than 135 states had signed it. For the European region, the Treaty between the USSR and the FRG, concluded in August 1970, was of great importance.
In 1972–1974, intensive negotiations were held at the highest level between the USSR and the USA, which led to the signing of a number of important political documents. "Fundamentals of Relations between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United States of America" contained a platform for transferring bilateral relations to a qualitatively new level of their radical improvement.
In the same period, the Treaty between the USSR and the United States on the limitation of anti-missile defense systems (ABM) was concluded, and the Interim Agreement on Certain Measures in the Field of Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms (OCB-1) was signed.
The improvement of relations between the two superpowers created the prerequisites for strengthening security and developing interstate cooperation on the European continent. The initiatives of the USSR and other socialist countries played a big role in this. Of no small importance was the change in the position of the FRG on questions of European policy. The coalition government of the Social Democrats, headed by Chancellor Willy Brandt, proposed a "new eastern policy", the core of which was the recognition of the post-war realities that had developed in Europe and the normalization of relations with the USSR and the countries of Eastern Europe. This gave impetus to the development of the process of strengthening pan-European security. In 1973, Helsinki hosted multilateral consultations of 33 European states, the United States and Canada on the preparation of a pan-European Conference. On July 30 - August 4, 1975, the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) was held in Helsinki. The leaders of 35 states signed the Final Act, which fixed the agreed principles of relations between the countries participating in the Conference, determined the content and forms of cooperation between them, and measures to reduce the risk of armed conflicts. Growing interest in developing the process initiated in Helsinki was shown by subsequent meetings of the CSCE participating States in Belgrade (1977-1978), Madrid (1980-1983), Stockholm (1984-1987), Vienna (1986-1989). d.), Paris (1990), Helsinki (1992).
The 1970s and 1980s were marked by an unprecedented growth in industrial, scientific and technical ties between Western countries and the USSR and other socialist countries. France, Great Britain, Austria, Italy, Belgium, Norway, Sweden, Greece, the Federal Republic of Germany and a number of other states concluded promising programs and agreements with the USSR. However, it should be noted that in the late 1970s and early 1980s the international situation escalated. The political course of the United States towards the USSR sharply tightened with the coming to power in January 1981. administration of R. Reagan. In March 1983, he launched the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI). Tensions culminated in the autumn of 1983 as a result of
The territory of the USSR shot down a South Korean airliner with passengers on board.
The growth of international tension was also associated with the foreign policy of the United States and other Western countries. Almost all regions of the planet have been declared a sphere of vital US interests. Many have experienced political, economic, and often military pressure from the United States. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Iran, Lebanon, Libya, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Grenada and other countries became objects of intervention. Tensions also increased in connection with the introduction of a limited contingent of Soviet troops into Afghanistan.
The changes that took place in the USSR with the coming to power in 1985 of new leaders made it possible to substantiate the foundations of new political thinking at the state level and begin their practical implementation. This led to a radical renewal of the foreign policy of the USSR. The central ideas of the new political thinking were: the idea of the priority of universal human interests over class, national, social; the idea of the interdependence of humanity in the face of the threat of rapidly advancing global problems; the idea of freedom of choice of social structure; the idea of democratization and de-ideologization of the entire system of international relations.
The new philosophy of the world made its way through concrete steps. Real confirmation of this was the development and deepening of the political dialogue between the USSR and the USA on all key issues of world politics and bilateral relations.
The Soviet-American talks at the highest level in Geneva (1985), Reykjavik (1986), Washington (1987) and Moscow (1988) led to an important result. In December 1987, the ROSMD Agreement was signed, and in June 1988, the ROSMD Agreement came into effect. This is the first agreement in history to provide for the destruction of two classes of nuclear weapons under strict international control. The result was a significant improvement in Soviet-American relations. Their further qualitative development occurred as a result of negotiations at the highest level in Washington (May-June 1990) and Moscow (July 1991). Of exceptional importance was the signing of a bilateral treaty on the limitation and reduction of strategic offensive arms. The balance of the treaty was in the interests of strengthening strategic stability and reducing the likelihood of a nuclear conflict. However, in this direction there are huge opportunities for moving forward and a more significant reduction in strategic offensive arms.
The settlement of Germany's relations and the signing of the corresponding agreement on September 10, 1990 played an important role in eliminating tension in international affairs both on the planet as a whole and in Europe. In practice, this treaty drew the final line under the results of the Second World War.
Subsequently, new acute problems arose in international affairs. The collapse of the Yugoslav Federation, and then the USSR, led to the emergence of new regional conflicts that have not been resolved to date. The geopolitical situation in the world has changed, the system of international relations between the socialist states has ceased to exist. The countries of Eastern Europe reoriented towards the West. In July 1997, at the NATO summit in Madrid, it was decided to expand the alliance to include three states of the former Warsaw Pact - the Czech Republic, Poland and Hungary. Bringing NATO's military structure closer to most of the CIS states could change the geopolitical situation and could undermine the system of arms limitation treaties. Such a development of events may complicate the creation of a new European structure and destabilize the entire system of international relations. The war in the Balkans, other conflicts in the European region, the difficulties of the transition period in the countries of Eastern Europe and in the post-Soviet space pose a threat to security in Europe. This threat is complemented by aggressive nationalism, religious and ethnic intolerance, terrorism, organized crime, and uncontrolled migration. V last years the struggle for control over decision-making on a global scale is intensifying. The greatest attention "centers of power" focus on activities that allow you to control the main financial, intellectual and information flows. The importance of control over economic processes and the development of the entire social sphere is rapidly growing. All this requires huge new efforts to preserve and strengthen peace and international security.
Entering the 21st century, humanity is faced not only with new global challenges, but also with a changed geopolitical situation. Remaining the only superpower in the world, the United States presents its leading role as a necessity, dictated not only by American national interests, but also by the desire of the world community.
The use of force in Iraq and Yugoslavia, the expansion of the North Atlantic Alliance, the use of force in other regions of the planet demonstrate the desire to establish absolute US hegemony in the world. China, Russia, India, and many independent states that are and will continue to resist hegemonism will hardly agree with this. In the current situation, the true security of mankind is not connected with the deepening of confrontation between countries and peoples, but with the search for new ways and directions of comprehensive and mutually beneficial cooperation that can ensure the preservation and flourishing of human civilization.
Consequences of World War II for the country
British Prime Minister W. Churchill called the results of World War II a "triumph and tragedy" for Great Britain. The triumph was the victory over Nazi Germany and its allies, the entry of Great Britain into the number of victorious countries, its participation in the post-war arrangement of the world. The tragedy was the decline of the former British power. The economic situation in the UK in the post-war years has deteriorated markedly. Although the human losses (245,000 killed and 278,000 wounded) were much less than in the First World War, the Second World War cost England 1/4 of its national wealth. During the war years, the public debt tripled and by 1946 exceeded 23 billion pounds, of which 3 billion was external debt. Commercial exports were almost halved, and a significant part of the merchant fleet was lost.
Generous American aid, including under the Marshall Plan, did little to stabilize the situation, but the pace economic growth Great Britain were lower compared to other Western European states. This was due to lagging behind the main competitors in terms of labor productivity, the introduction of science and technology, swollen and inefficient public sector of the economy.
On May 24, 1945, the resignation of the coalition government of W. Churchill was announced, the House of Commons was dissolved, and new parliamentary elections were announced, which had not been held in connection with the war for 10 years. Contrary to the expectations of the Conservatives, who relied on the authority and popularity of their leader W. Churchill, the Labor Party won this election. The new government was formed by K. Attlee.
During the post-war period, two leading states took turns in power in Britain. political parties: Labor and Conservative.
Thus, the Conservatives ruled the state for 35 post-war years, the rest of the time (25 years today) - the Labor Party.
The Labor Party, which relied on trade unions, proclaimed "democratic socialism" as its goal. The leaders of the British Labor Party initiated the creation of the Socialist International (1951). As a reformist party, during the 1940s and 1970s, the Laborites advocated the expansion of the public sector of the economy, an increase in budgetary spending on social needs, an increase in taxation rates for entrepreneurial capital and high-income groups of the population; paying more attention to housing construction, especially in the working quarters of cities, the development of depressed areas with high unemployment. In 1981, the Laborites announced their rejection of the idea of expanding the public sector as a priority in their policy, and in 1995, a clause was removed from the party's charter that put forward "public ownership of the means of production" as a mandatory goal of Laborism. Now the party advocates the creation of a mixed economy, in which state ownership must prove its effectiveness in competition with the private sector. By the end of the 20th century, Labor also reconsidered its traditionally close ties with the trade unions, ceasing to be a political branch of the trade unions. As a matter of fact, in the 1980s and 1990s there was a complete revision of the traditional Labor values, the transformation of the party from the “party of workers”, as it called itself, into the party of the “middle class”.
The Conservative Party advocates for private property and for limiting state intervention in economic life. To the Labor doctrine of "democratic socialism" and their course towards the nationalization of the economy, the conservatives opposed the concept of "people's capitalism", or "democracy of owners". Its goal is to attract the maximum number of citizens to property through the privatization of housing and land, the acquisition of shares and participation in the profits of enterprises. Much attention in the Conservatives' programs is paid to small business and incentives for its development. They are also characterized by adherence to traditional moral and religious values, respect for law and rights, constitutional order and firm power based on it. In the field of foreign policy, conservatives have always been in favor of a "special," close relationship with the United States.
Liquidation of the British colonial empire
The immediate result of the Second World War was the collapse of the British Empire, as well as other world colonial empires. Moreover, England pursued a flexible policy with respect to its colonies. This allowed her to avoid military confrontation with the countries that were being liberated (unlike, for example, France, which was "mired" in colonial wars). In addition, England managed to maintain control over its former colonies for a long time by founding the British Commonwealth of Nations (since 1949 it has been called the Commonwealth of Nations, or simply the Commonwealth).
In 1947, the most British colony, the "pearl of the British crown" - India, gained independence. On its territory, two dominion states were formed - India and Pakistan. 1948 Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and Burma received dominion status.
The 50-60s became the main stage in the collapse of the British colonial empire. During this period, the former British colonies gained independence in Africa (Ghana, Nigeria, Uganda, etc.), in the Middle East and Southeast Asia (Cyprus, Kuwait, Malaysia, etc.), in the Caribbean and Oceania ( Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, etc.). In the summer of 1997, Great Britain transferred Hong Kong to the jurisdiction of China, which had been British possession for 150 years.
Most of the former British dominions and colonies became part of the Commonwealth of Nations. Today it has 49 members. Many of these countries recognize the Queen of Great Britain as head of state.
The conservative governments of M. Thatcher and J. Major. "Thatcherism"
At the end of the 1970s, against the background of the aggravation of the socio-economic and political problems experienced by Great Britain, the fall of its national prestige, the public opinion of the country will undergo significant transformations. In the 1979 parliamentary elections, voters preferred the Conservatives. For the first time in the country's history, a woman became prime minister - Margaret Thatcher, leader of the Conservative Party.
The main direction of the domestic policy of the conservatives was the revival of private enterprise. Emphasis was placed on the fight against inflation, a radical reduction in income taxation of individuals and entrepreneurs while increasing indirect taxes, deindustrialization (liquidation of unprofitable enterprises).
Industry was denationalized on a large scale. Already by the beginning of 1991, almost half of the British industrial sector was transferred to private hands (including the oil and gas industries, telephone communications, airlines, water supply, energy, metallurgy). Only four industries remained in state ownership: coal, railway, postal service and nuclear energy.
The socio-economic policy of M. Thatcher, which was called "Thatcherism", was also characterized by a reduction in social spending, an uncompromising struggle against the exorbitant growth of the influence of trade unions in society, limiting the right to hold demonstrations and increasing the cost of maintaining the police.
This policy had positive consequences. Inflation dropped from 15 to 3% per year. Since 1983, an economic recovery has begun, and faster than in other European countries (growth rates were 5% per year). There has been a modernization of industry, its structure has changed in favor of the latest science-intensive industries. About a quarter of the total adult population (11 million people) became owners of shares in enterprises. As a result of the privatization of housing, two-thirds of British families have become owners of houses and apartments. During the time of M. Thatcher, more than 40% of the population of Great Britain considered themselves to be the middle class. There is a country managed to get out of the crisis.
At the same time, the stratification of society has noticeably increased, the number of poor people and the unemployed has increased. Ethnic relations escalated. All attempts by the Conservatives to resolve the Ulster crisis were unsuccessful.
The “poll tax on housing” turned out to be quite unpopular;
1990 M. Thatcher resigned as party leader and prime minister. She was replaced by J. Major. In 1992, the conservatives won the next parliamentary elections and thus confirmed their status as the ruling party.
The cabinet of J. Major, in the spirit of "Thatcherism", concentrated its main efforts on the fight against inflation and continued the policy of denationalization of the economy. At the same time, the new prime minister tried to avoid the extremes of "Thatcherism". This was manifested in the fact that the government began to pay more attention to social security programs, improving health care and education systems. The "poll tax on housing" was abolished, self-government reform was carried out with the aim of its democratization. True, after the 1992 parliamentary elections, which were successful for the Conservatives, the policy of J. Major noticeably “corrected”: wages were “frozen”, unemployment assistance was reduced, etc. Despite the brilliant indicators of the state of the economy, the Conservatives suffered in the 1997 elections crushing defeat.
Politics of the Labor cabinet of T. Blair
In 1997, the Labor government was formed, headed by T. Blair. His government has embarked on reforms. The most important of these is constitutional. It provides for: granting greater autonomy to Scotland and Wales (legislative bodies have already been formed there - local parliamentary assemblies), the abolition of the hereditary principle of forming the House of Lords, the inclusion of the European Convention on Human Rights and others in national legislation.
A significant achievement of Blair's cabinet was the political settlement of the Ulster crisis. In April 1998, an agreement was signed between the parties to the conflict. This document embodied a compromise between Protestants' demands to retain their British citizenship and Catholics' desire for closer ties with Ireland. This allowed for elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly and the formation of executive authorities.
New Labor, represented by T. Blair, abandoned the traditional hostility towards entrepreneurship. The government is trying to keep an equal distance in relations with employees and employers, implementing a policy of social partnership. The denationalization of the public sector was stopped, but the status of those public service enterprises that had passed into private hands remained unchanged.
UK foreign policy priorities
The main direction of British foreign policy in the post-war years was the course towards a close alliance and military-political cooperation with the United States, as well as with the countries of Western Europe. 1949 Great Britain became one of the founders of NATO. She maintained strategic positions in the Near and Middle East, took part in the creation of military-political blocs in the East. As for the USSR, in the conditions of the Cold War, relations with it deteriorated sharply.
In the 1950s and 1970s, Great Britain followed the course that had developed in the post-war years in foreign policy, strengthening cooperation with the United States and Western Europe. In particular, Britain supported the policy of the allies in the German question and agreed to the entry of the FRG into NATO.
The liquidation of colonialism, financial and economic difficulties forced the British government to retreat from the traditional doctrine of "military presence" and withdraw its troops from Asian countries by the end of the 60s.
Relations with the Soviet Union developed ambiguously. A certain liberalization of the foreign policy of the USSR after 1953 contributed to the gradual normalization of relations between the two countries, but this process was repeatedly subjected to obstacles.
In the last decades of the 20th - early 20th centuries, the activity of Great Britain in the international arena increased, in particular, in the processes of European integration. In 1973 it became a full member of the European Economic Community (the "Common Market"). The participation of Great Britain in the development of the Maastricht Treaty of 1991 (officially signed in early 1992) and the creation of the European Union testifies to the gradual reorientation of British foreign policy from the Atlantic direction (orientation towards the USA) to the European one. However, Great Britain has been and remains the main ally of the United States in the international arena (as evidenced, for example, by the active participation of the British armed forces in the US wars in Iraq in 1991 and 2003).
In 1982, a military conflict arose between Great Britain and Argentina for the possession of the Falkland (Malvinas) Islands, as a result of which these islands completely came under the control of Great Britain.
After the collapse of the USSR, Great Britain recognized all the independent states that had formed in the post-Soviet space.