The history of medicine knows not only heroic doctors, ready to sacrifice themselves. Many ordinary, ordinary doctors died of infectious diseases obtained from the bed of the patient. They died from abdominal and raw typhus, from cholera and plague, from scarletin and diphtheria, and they not only infected themselves, but also ended up the danger of their loved ones. There is not a single infectious disease that the doctors would not have infected by performing their duty.

These doctors were not heroes, like those that put experiences on themselves. They made heroic actions from a simple aspiration to help the patient, often even without knowing what they do something special, without thinking about danger and every day risking their own health and health of their loved ones.

Thus, the history of the development of medicine is the chronicle of the heroic struggle for life and health, self-sacrifice in search of truth, clashes with ignorance, superstitions and prejudices, perseverance and heroism in the face of failures and disappointments.

Medicine is a system of scientific knowledge and practical activity aimed at strengthening and preserving the health of people, the extension of their life, for preventing and treating diseases.

Medicine is one of the most ancient sciences. In its development, she passed a long way and at each stage accumulated and summarized the experience and knowledge of the structure and functions of the human body, about human diseases and practical skills on their recognition, prevention and treatment.

There is medicine a folk, traditional and scientific, and these concepts are far away.

ethnoscience - The concept is wide and historically more older. It includes a combination of funds and techniques of national healing, which were developed as a result of empirical experience throughout the history of mankind from human occurrence (more than 2 million years ago) to the present day.

Thus, the traditional medicine is the peer of a person on Earth. It existed in all periods of human history in all nations of the world. Her experience multiplied with thousands of years, passed from generation to generation, kept in a circle of dedicated, developed alone and destroyed by others.

Time-tested rational techniques and the huge empirical experience of people's healing subsequently became one of the sources of traditional, and then scientific medicine.

Traditional medicine - The concept is narrower, more concrete and historically younger. It is always on the basis of a slim religious and philosophical teaching, which is organically intertwined the empirical experience of popular healing.

Since traditional medicine is associated with the culture of this nation, develops in line with its traditions, it changes little over the course of centuries and even thousands of years (for example, traditional Chinese medicine).

Also, like traditional medicine, traditional medicine is one of the sources of scientific medicine.

Scientific medicine is closely related to the scientific experiment, during which empirical knowledge and philosophical ideas are checked, harmonious, scientifically substantiated concepts, hypothesis, theory are being created.

Scientific medicine and its methods are not traditional, because Not related to any single culture and its traditions. Moreover, scientific medicine is internationally in its essence, and its achievements quickly become the property of various peoples of the globe.

Only the Union of People's, Traditional and Scientific Medicine opens up greater opportunities for treating and preventing diseases to humanity, according to nature, which do not violate the interaction of a person with the outside world.

The range of interests of medicine covers all parties to human life, its public and labor activity, as well as factors of the natural and social medium in terms of their impact on health.

Since medicine is inextricably linked with the level of culture, it developed mainly in the foci of civilization, and the decline or death of one or another civilization did not mean loss of medical acquisitions and experience. On the contrary, when changing socio-economic formations, they accumulated and enriched, moving from one generation of doctors to another. That's why it is possible to study medicine only in its historical development.

Thus, the history of medicine is a science that studies achievements in the field of healing, medicine and medical activities of the world throughout the history of mankind (since ancient times to the present day).

Acquaintance with the past medicine allows you to trace how the development of ideas about the essence of the disease was associated with the social system, with the level of development of productive forces, with a worldview, and as in this connection, the content and direction of medical activities changed.

The history of medicine as a subject of teaching is divided into common and private.

The general history of medicine is detected by the main laws of the historical development of healing and the study of the main problems of medicine.

Private medical history contains information about the development of individual medical specialties concerning the life and activities of outstanding doctors and medical scientists, scientific achievements of their schools, the history of the most important discoveries in the field of medicine. Since the issues of history are aware of any medical discipline, they are posted on relevant theoretical and clinical departments.

Between the general and private history of medicine, there is a natural distinction and at the same time close connection. Together they form the test system
the doctor's rico-medical education, which plays a big role in raising its general and professional culture.

Periodization and chronology of the medicine history is based on the periodization of world history adopted in modern historical science, according to which the world-historical process is divided into 5 main periods:

* primitive society

* ancient world

* middle Ages

* New time

* Newest (modern) story

For each period, its most progressive form of socio-economic development is characteristic, and each period reflects the development and replace of five socio-economic formations:

* primitive community

* slave owner

* feudal

* Capitalist

* Socialist

Sources of studying the history of medicine are divided into several main groups:

real (material) are archaeological finds (skull, bones, coins, medals, coats, coins)

ethnographic rites, customs, beliefs

oral and folklore songs, legends, ballads, legends

linguistic images in speech form, which show through the word kinship of whole groups and peoples

5. Written clay plates, papyrus, drawings on stones and rocks, manuscripts, printed works of doctors, historians, philosophers, military and statesmen, archival materials

6. Movies PhotoDocuments

All sources make serious requirements, in particular, careful checking, authentication and reliability.

In the doctor's training system, the history of medicine plays a big role:

* It shows the doctor the patterns of development of medicine in every historical period

* shows what the impact on the development of people's ideas about health and illness was their worldview

* Shows the doctor the connection of the development of medical science with class struggle, brings up the consciousness of the need to deal with osnosis and routine

* On the basis of the past, teaches the doctor to recognize their mistakes, warns it from hasty decisions

* And finally, increases its common and professional cultural level.

So, we turn to the study of the main stages of the development of medicine and, let's start, as it should be, from the very beginning from the history of primitive society.

The first treated skull of the fossil person on our planet was found in Latin America - in the area of \u200b\u200bCusco (in the territory of Peru) in 1865 it was treated in ritual purposes: a hole, as a rule, was carried out in stereotypical zones of the brain skull. Perhaps, a primitive man hoped that through a hole in the skull of the spirit of the disease would be able to easily leave the body of the patient. Or trepanation was performed after traumatic damage to the brain skull and is associated with the removal of bone fragments.

For the history of medicine, the fact of successful (experienced) trepanation is fundamentally important, which indicates the reality of successful operational interventions on the brain skull, which is already the place during the periods of the late generic community and the decomposition of primitive society.

Thus, healing in this era continued to remain the benefit of collective. The accumulation of empirical knowledge reflected the collective experience of the people.

Healing during the period of decomposition of primitive society (from the 10-5th millennium BC).

The most important event in the field of cultural development of mankind at the end of the primitive era was the invention in the 4th millennium BC. writing.

During this period in the field of healing, the skills and receptions of negligent treatment were enshrined and developed, the circle of medicines was expanded, the birth was improved, the tools made of metal (copper, bronze, iron) were manufactured for healing, developed therapeutic assistance to wounded communities during the frequent wars.

Operational methods of healing of this period:

Ritual circumcision.

Limb amputation.

Cesarean section.

Healing in primitive era was not primitive for his time, and therefore cannot be called "primitive medicine."

Diseases that existed in any era of the history of mankind were, on the one hand, the phenomenon of biological, since they develop on the basis of the human body in close connection with the surrounding nature, and on the other - the social phenomenon, since they are determined by the specific conditions of social life and activities man.

Medicine primitive man dealt only with separate symptoms, did not know the general picture of the disease. Family receptions and primitive surgical interventions preceded the knowledge of the structure and functions of the human body. Medicine emerged from practical needs. Theoretical views in medicine have arisen from practice and later practice.

However, already in the early stages of development of medicine, a person tried to answer the question about the essence of the disease. The representations of a primitive person about the causes and essence of the disease arose and developed at the same time and in close connection with its common worldview. The worldview of primitive man in the earliest stages was spontaneous-materialistic, real. This was reflected in the art of the Human Ancient Stone Age, which also had a realistic character. The man watched the fall of the tree, the stone, hit or experienced the punch itself and the pain and damage caused by these phenomena (injury, bruise, wound, and even death) connected with the real fact of falling a tree or stone, a stick and so on. Many concepts and terms of folk speech to date reflect the ancient representations of the people about the causes of diseases. The feeling made by diseases, the national language brought closer with the blow of acute weapons: Kolotier, thread, lubrication, shooting. Physical suffering people are considered as a result of a blow or injection of weapons: "Strike", "hit", "striking", "shot", "broken by paralysis", fever (shaking).

Many therapeutic techniques and funds arising in the primitive community strictly preserved in folk medicine, which still enjoys a significant number of people.

First healers, their social status.

Due to the accumulation of a large amount of information about diseases, drugs and their use with various ailments, the effectiveness of treatment, representatives who collected, generalized and kept the experience gained during many centuries, enriched it, and then transferred to the following generations. Such professionals could appear only when the collective experience that was formed during the primitive herd, could no longer satisfy people's requests in the era of folding and strengthening the parental family. Healthy questions were among the first, demanding permits and accumulation of knowledge and skills in the hands of the most capable members of the generic communities.

The initial selection of healers from the tribesmen environment should be attributed to the time of the transition of the primitive herd into the primitive generic community in the process of forming the parent. The concentration of the most important types of social activities in the hands of a woman, the domination of a woman in the way predetermined the fact that women were mainly engaged in the healing of mankind. As the searches and collecting plant food in natural form were engaged in the main way, they became the first connoisseurs of medicinal plants.

At a later time, the role of women in healing found Otzvuk in written sources and popular legends in which women who owned this art: in Egypt - Mighty Polydamna, in Greece - Ruskudriya Wife Agameda, in the Czech Republic - Muda Kaza, in Kiev, Marina , Media Ilya Muromets.

As the role of a man is elevated, it is increasingly what it starts to perform therapeutic functions. As a rule, these honorary duties left the elders of childbirth.

Rites and conspiracies as a form of organization of medical activities.

During the period of decomposition of primitive society, the formation of class inequality led to internal proprietary, strengthening a tribal organization and, consequently, to strengthen the cult of tribal patrons and religious representations. This led to the appearance of professional ministers of the cult.

Sphere of activity of employees of the cult:

Preservation and transfer of positive knowledge.

Interpretation of customs.

Religious functions.

Healing.

Legal proceedings, etc.

Often the main occupation was healing.

Over time, religious rites have become more mysterious and incomprehensible to most members of the community. However, the cult rites of the healing were a secondary phenomenon, "practice and empirical experience, and not magic was the basis from which the primitives of healing grew.

Nowadays in some countries of Asia, America, Africa, folk oceans are preserved on Oceania healers - Diggers. The preparation of the signs was carried out (and is currently being conducted) individually. Knowledge remained secret and passed from parents to children or elected for these purposes the most capable child in the tribe.

Widely used conspiracy and spells.

Conspiracy - This is a verbal formula that has supposedly supernatural power.

The practical conspiracy tel was to protect a person from penetrating in his body an evil creature or a spirit causing a disease, or expel it from the body of a sick person.

The essays of many parties to the medical and hygienic activities of people of the era of the primitive commuting system reached us in conspiracies consistently formed under the influence of fetishism, totemism, animism, and later - under the influence of church ideology.

For example, the conspiracies for the "Blood Having": "A red maiden sits on the sea on the ocean (heaven), the seamstress, holds a boulie, invested in a silk thread, Rueful, sews bloody wounds", or: "On the sea-ocean, on The island - on the brown of the girl red silk sewn; Sew did not become, I stopped ore. "

They clearly states that "wounds bloody" stacked with needles bouquet and silk threads, and bleeding stopped. And this surgical intervention conducted the "Maiden's Red", "Seammaster", i.e., a woman who has high mastery. In these conspiracies, the outlines of the matriarchy are heard.

As in any other action of folk healers, it was not a conspiracy, but was completed by the recommendation.

Although primitive people, when treating diseases, put forward plots, rational principles not only did not go from the scene, but also strengthened their positions.

The most ancient conspiracies were based on the faith due to the word, but first of all, in faith in the conspiracy rite, the magical impact itself, which over time disappeared and forgotten.

Ritual - This is a system of conditional actions having supposedly supernatural power.

The ritual rituals associated with the expulsion of the sickness of the disease belongs to the trepanation of the skull.

The desire to expel the spirit of the disease from the body of the patient gave rise to a whole direction of iconic practice - shamanism which combined irrational rituals with the use of rational means and techniques of healing.

The rites took place in the open sky or in the hut - in the holy place. During the rite of shaman, the patient, the members of the tribe occupied a certain place, performed certain actions. The rite was accompanied by music, singing, dancing. Shaman had a kind of clothing form, or its attributes. Shaman performed as an intermediary between the united spirit of the disease and the patient. The rite could be accompanied by a sacrifice.

The emergence of folk hygiene and traditional medicine in Belarus.

People who had some information about the surrounding world were commented to the territory of Belarus during its settlement, which gave the receptions of helping patients and some hygienic skills.

A significant importance in the life of primitive people on the territory of Belarus from a hygienic point of view was a selection of a place for settlement, a dwelling device.

Primitive people settled mainly at the high sandy banks of the rivers and lakes, on the upper heads of the terraces cut the ravines and protected from cold winds, as well as near the places where the cereals grew, hunting for wild beasts and fishing.

At each new historical stage, the dwellings were improved in hygienic terms.

Significant medical and hygienic significance in the life of primitive people had ceramic products. Clay vessels appeared on the territory of Belarus in the Neolithic era. It is assumed that they were preceded by vessels from leather, wood, berers and baskets, crowns.

About 100 thousand years ago, people died mostly at 20 years old, only one person lived to the forty-year-old age from hundreds of people. Cryanonians lived a little more: out of 100 people up to 40 years old lived 12.

As the productions of production, the expansion of various types of food, mainly animal origin, the improvement of housing increased the population increased, the average age of people increased, their anthropometric signs improved.

For millennia, people have accumulated tremendous experience in preventing diseases. The experience of the struggle for their existence initially a person accumulated from the standpoint of the spontaneous and materialistic perception of the surrounding world and the processes occurring in it. All his actions were based on the understanding of nature, what it is, without any additions.

From the same position, he has developed ideas about the causes of diseases and measures of impact against them. The person observed the appearance of injuries after the strikes of labor tools and the surrounding objects, as a result of the attacks of animals, the emergence and development of diseases from the bites of snakes and insects, after taking unsuitable or untreated food, and others, respectively, these observations and, based on their own sensations, he called the disease.

Surgical interventions were used scrakes, flints, double-sided treated stone choppers. They could be used to open the dishes, processing bone fragments with open fractures for bloodsinking.

In the bronze age there were knives that could be used for various surgical interventions.

Iron shills and needles could come in handy for puncture of ulcers, crosslinking dissected or torn soft tissues of the human body, and grains - for the manufacture of a variety of drugs from grains, roots, stems, colors: ointments, powders, infusions, decoctions and other forms.

By the middle of the first millennium N. e. On the territory of Belarus, more advanced knives, saws, spits, needles, bits and other guns, which, apparently, it was most convenient to make amputations, bloodstand, trepanation, to remove foreign bodies, open ulneys, process and sew wounds, etc.

In the receptions and ways to assist experience was predominantly collective.

Folk healers from the times of primitive-free building to recognize the diseases, asked the patient and his relatives, carefully examined it. They distinguished diseases such as mugs, pasta, intermittent fever (malaria, trams), uterine bleeding, blencers, worms, hinged disease (epilepsy), cough, toad, chicken blindness, rabies, bloody diarrhea, convulsions in children, korosta (scabies ), chickness lubrication (rheumatism), hernia, toothache, fire (waving deprived), burn, wound, bone fracture, etc. Lekari also used the concepts of fever (from "Laho", "Radi", i.e. something), heart disease, tumor of legs, stomach disorder, sore throat, abdominal pain, chest pain, headache, cold, cologitas in sides and chest, gold, koltun, jaundice, etc.

The arsenal of therapeutic agents was expanded. In folk medicine, the leading role was played by the means of the plant world. From the assembled drugs, infusions, decoctions, powders, ointments, plasters were prepared.

Means of animal origin were used, especially as the foundations for ointments, talkers, suspensions (goose, chicken, beef, fishery, badger, hedge, bear, dog fat, honey, wax and other ingredients). Milk, butter, sour cream, pork bile, calf liver, meat, egg protein and many other means are prescribed with therapeutic goal.

Water procedures were also carried out: wipes, hygienic baths in pure water and in water with coniferous influences, soda and other substances.

With therapeutic goal, the people of the primitive binding system were used from the bottom of the rivers and lakes, clay, sand, took sun and air baths. They have been widely prescribed thermal procedures: baths, inhalation, compresses, wraps, guys in the bath. But in the necessary cases, cold water compresses were imposed, the ice was applied to patients. Banks, mustard pieces and other physiotherapeutic items were also used.

So, in folk medicine, the richest experience in preserving the health and treatment of diseases acquired by people for millennia was reflected.

Thus, monuments of the material and spiritual culture of primitive people who lived in Belarus, testify that their health and hygienic activities began together with the settlement of the territory, and professional healer has developed no later than the Upper Paleolithic.

Medicine folk, traditional, scientific (in the modern world)

In modern world There are three global areas of medical activities: ethnoscience (right - folk healing), traditional medicine and scientific medicine.

People's Healing (Folk Medicine) - The concept includes a combination of funds and techniques of national healers developed as a result of empirical experience throughout the history of mankind from human occurrence (more than 2 million years ago) to the present day.

At the dawn of mankind, in primitive era, the healing was a collective occupation of all communities - truly folk healing.

Folk Medicine - Phenomenon universal; It existed in all periods of the history of mankind, in all peoples of the world.

Table 1. Folk, traditional, scientific medicine

Her experience was multiplied with thousands of years, passed from generation to generation, kept in a circle of dedicated, developed alone and destroyed by others. She did not reach us in all its glory and power, - much lost, destroyed, is forgotten, because the assessment of traditional medicine for centuries was ambiguous: from worship before oblivion. People's healing has absorbed as rational knowledge and techniques (therapeutic means of plant, animal, mineral origin; psychological impact, hands, hygienic skills) and fantastic (irrational), The occurrence of a legitarious result of the opinion of the world's mighty and incomprehensible nature.

Time-tested rational techniques and the huge empirical experience of popular healing were subsequently one of the sources of traditional and then scientific medicine. At the same time, magical rituals and irrational techniques of primitive healing were the subject of a critical assessment, and in certain historical conditions served as a reason for the fight against popular healing.

Traditional medicine - The concept is narrower, more concrete and historically younger. It is based on a slim philosophical, or rather religious philosophical teachings in that The empirical experience of the folk healing of this ethnos is organically intertwined. Without the philosophical concept, which determines the place of a person (microcosm) in the surrounding world (Macrocosm), can not be traditional medicine.And since traditional medicine develops in line with tradition, which is stable, it changes little over the centuries and even thousands of years (a classic example is traditional Chinese medicine). In other words, traditional medicine is viable where there is hearth and carriers of this culture - i.e. At home. This does not exclude the possibility of spreading and in other regions of the globe, but at home it will always be more efficient and viable.

The time of the formation of traditional medicine systems in different countries almost always coincided with the period of the formation of civilizations and statehood - time, when public traditions and laws were established, religious representations and philosophical exercises were formed.

Classical examples of traditional medicine are chinese, Ayurvedic, Tibetan traditional systems.

And folk healing, and traditional medicine are the sources of scientific medicine.

Scientific medicine closely connected with scientific experiment, in The course of which the empirical knowledge and philosophical ideas are checked, harmonious scientifically (in the sense of experimentally) informed concepts, hypothesis, theory are being created. Scientific medicine and its methods are not traditional, i.e. associated with any one culture and its tradition. Moreover, scientific medicine international In essence, - in our days, its achievements quickly become the property of various peoples of the globe. The purpose of the natural sciences is an objective study of the nature and laws of its development. On all continents of the globe, this study is based on the methods that modern science owns.

Thus, scientific medicine is non-traditional in a historical context. Consequently, its modern "alternative" (for example, the use of the method zhen-Tszyu) HA may be called "non-traditional" medicine. The name "non-traditional" medium of non-professional name "Non-traditional" medicine (in the sense: "The most familiar scientific medicine for us") is historically shorter and, therefore, illegally, it is precisely these so-called "non-traditional methods" most often and turn out to be methods of traditional medicine (acupuncture, migration, massage, hypnosis, phytotherapy and many others).

What then has the right to be called "non-traditional" medicine? First of all, it is scientific medicine; It is out of any one tradition, i.e. nontraditional (You can say: cosmopolitan). In China, to this day there are traditional, and alternative medicine: traditional Chinese and unconventional scientific (mainly European) medicine. They are taught in various medical schools and universities, but in practice closely related to each other.

The scientific interaction between folk, traditional and scientific medicine opens up broad prospects for treating and preventing diseases by methods, according to nature, which do not violate the interaction of a person with the world around.

The main features of the medicine of primitive society.

1. Obtaining fire, use of metals, manufacture of dishes, shoes.

2. The formation of collective medicine (folk).

3. The origin of fantastic beliefs (totemism, fetishism, animism).

4. Formation of the iconic practice of healing.

5. The appearance of professional ministers of the cult (including healing).

Scientific medicine - The same term is usually incorrectly used in the sense of opposite medicine practical; But the last in all of its manifestations is the bed of the patient, in solving sanitary or judicial issues, there is nothing other, as an applied application of common scientific medicine of the foundations of medicine to those or other everyday, practical Therefore, it should also be scientific medicine in this way, under scientific medicine, medicine should imply only the combination of theoretical and practical study of medical science, which gives a doctor of versatile activities in the field of treatment and prevention of diseases, as in facilitating the state, society and individual Persons in solving issues requiring knowledge purchased by medical science. , As part of natural science, at the same time, the science is collective, which includes a number of a wide variety of branches of knowledge. The successes of her stand in close connection with the progress of natural sciences and its level of development always corresponded to the simultaneous state of natural science; For broad generalizations of natural phenomena and their main reasons, those or other dominant philosophical flows of thought have always reflected. Finally, the development of social sciences affected not without influence on the level of our medical knowledge. But for medicine, they also had natural sciences, especially physics and chemistry, and in recent decades - botany and zoology of lower animals, which have enormous influence on the development of bacteriology and generally indicated on the significance of lower organisms in pathology. This impact is determined not only by the fact that natural sciences are at the heart of the study of the human body, healthy and patient, but even more because the methods that natural resources enjoy are also served to study medicine. Feature of natural sciences is accuracydue to methods of studying nature: experience, observation and flowing out of this generalization. The same principle is guided by scientific medicine. For example, the discovery of oxygen was tremendous to study the physiology of breathing. served as the basis for the study of blood circulation; The success of knowledge about electricity opened new horizons in the physiology of nervous and muscle systems. The law of struggle for existence explains to us a lot of phenomena in the field of infectious diseases, etc. As now in the study of nature, the biological principle is dominated, then medicine, disrespecting from the influence of previously dominated philosophical systems - yatrochimikov, yatrophysics, animists, natural philosophers, etc. D., herself became one of the branches of biological sciences and, as such, at the very creature itself - the science inductive and, only as numerous facts accumulate, it can use deductive teaching techniques.

The basis for the study of any organism in general, the human body in particular is the exact knowledge of its normal structure and normal shipments, anatomy and body. In this regard, both sciences, especially the first, reached the currently extraordinary height. The study of the human body, for m is the few organs, almost ended. A huge impetus to our modern knowledge of the anatomy at the very beginning of the present century, the famous Bisha (1771-1802; see), who seted in his essay "On Life and Death" (Paris, 1800) aim to indicate that all vital processes are the immediate expression of physical and Chemical properties of organic formations. In this principle, the influence of the vitalism that prevailed in the Medical School of Montpelle also affected. But the main merit consisted of learning tissues The organism both in their physiological and pathological relationships. Anatomy during this century also made enormous successes, on the one hand, thanks to the improvement of microscopic technology and research methods (histophysics, histoochemistry, cells, microtomy, painting and fixation of drugs, etc.), on the other - wonderful discoveries A ( 1838) and Svanna (1839), especially the latter, which has proven the identity of plant and animal cells (see). Enough importance in the study of tissues and organs acquired, i.e., studying the development of the embryo from the jacket, which was provided by the unforgettable services two SPb. Academician Panter (1773-1865) and Bair (1792-1876). The improvement of microscopic equipment made it possible to explore not only the structure of a healthy and sick cell, in the lively and dead of it, but also to observe the processes in it performed. Modern acquaintance with infectious diseases, with immunity and other issues of physiology, pathology was possible only due to the study of the reaches of the lower organisms and cells of the tissues, their struggle and processes, while taking place under the microscope.

Study of the departments of the body, i.e. physiology (see), also reached an extraordinary height at present, thanks to the wonderful works of Johann Miller (1801-1858), Du-Boua Reimon, Bishoff in and, Genial Claude Bernard, A, Lonezh , Charles Bell, and others. Especially reflected in our physiological knowledge of the enormous success of the chemistry, from which such an important industry was stated, like physiological chemistry, languageing the problems of breathing, nutrition, metabolism, and in general chemistry of cells, tissues and juices. Similarly, physics, especially its laws of conservation of energy and unity of physical forces, gave a lot of data to clarify those observed in a healthy and sore body of phenomena. Knowledge of the normal structure and normal shipments of the body allows us to evaluate all the deviations from them, that is, to assimilate the pathological anatomy and pathological physiology. The anatomy in his success always followed the success of normal and, like the latter, was not limited to studying the changes alone, visible, but using a microscope and experimenting on animals, traced the course of pathological changes in tissues and organs, under the influence of various conditions. In this regard, the greatest services had this science of Virhov, who made it from a purely descriptive subject to an emergency philosophical height. Based on the main Omnis Cellula E Cellula, that is, every cell from the cell, he subjected to the most complete and comprehensive development of almost all departments of pathological anatomy. His well-known student has a huge merit of the study of inflammation (see), indicating the role of white blood balls. Currently, it is very difficult to separate the pathological anatomy from the general pathology, so these both science are closely related to each other. And in these sectors of medical knowledge, observation and experiment more and more expanded our views. Knowing an anatomical structure, chemical composition and physical properties of any tissue of the body, you can specify what the change in all of its component elements has been expressed. For example, we define not only the rebirth of the tissues, their qualitative and quantitative change, the change of the chemical composition of blood, lymphs, various discharges, modification of the bone density, changes in the color of the skin and mucous membranes, but very often indicate the reasons that influenced that. Similarly, we can judge and deviate from the norm of various shipments of the body. Knowing the normal temperature of the human body, the degree of reduction of muscle fibers, the phenomenon of normal hydrodiffusion in the tissues and causes, which are determined, we can compare the increased or reduced temperature, a decrease or even loss of muscle contraction (paresa and paralysis) or, on the contrary, excessive strengthening it (cramps), effluent, etc. D. Familiarity with the causes of these deviations, the knowledge of the conditions under which they occurred allows you to put a well-known connection between them. So, for example, an increased heart can entail his hypertrophy. Knowing it, it is already easier to look for the causes of increased activities. Thus, going from in common to particular, it can be found that the increased activity is due to obstacles for normal blood circulation requiring a large stress to eliminate them, or that it may depend on the introduction of substances into the body that annoying that part of the nervous heart system that accelerates its activities , or from paralysis of a wandering nerve, delaying cardiac activity, etc. Along with this, studying the ratio of causes and consequences, we are based on the fact that the same reason is not limited to a certain consequence, but causes a number of Their, which depends on the simultaneous action to many centers, or from the fact that one consequence inevitably entails others. So, for example, introducing any poison to the body, we see that many organs are amazed and a lot of shipments are violated. Each of these deviations, in turn, entails a number of others. Thus, general pathology allows us to study the heterogeneity of the consequences, to reduce them to one general beginning, knowing which, it is easier for us to determine what impact is required to return the body to normal. "Using all the data of other sciences, collecting from all medical knowledge, from all departments of private pathology Material to clarify the essence and causes of painful phenomena, finally, reproducing painful changes, similar to human, modern general pathology finds out and establishes the laws on which everything is committed Possible deviations from the norm; It creates a number of types of painful processes in this way and is a truly common part of the entire volume of private pathology "(I. V. Podweysotsky). In addition to the study of typical painful processes found in all parts of the body, it includes a comprehensive study of basic deviations from the normal function of blood circulation, digestion, etc. The number of the main types of painful processes, whatever causes and in any kind of body they have been caused, It is very small, but, due to the different mutual grouping, or due to the localization of painful processes in various parts of the body, or due to different tensions in their detection, the number of individual species and forms of diseases achieve huge sizes. For example, the processes of inflammation (see) are the same everywhere, but it manifests itself completely different in the mucous membranes of the intestinal channel and in the bone system. Fevering processes in infectious diseases may proceed completely differently in a healthy man, or at a small-class entity with one or another vice heart, or in a pregnant woman. Knowledge of general pathology facilitates the possibility of studying private pathology, the subject of which will be both separate painful forms and diseases of those or other organs, the symptoms they are detected, and the changes they cause. Recognition of these changes and the essence of suffering is subject diagnostics , which at the present century has gained extreme development, on the one hand, thanks to the introduction of physical methods of the study of the patient, on the other - microscopic and chemical analysis of the discharge or even tissue of the body (test punctures, removal of tumor pieces for research under the microscope, etc.). Hasive merit in this regard acquired the French Corvisar (1755-1821) and Lennek (1781-1826), both professors of medicine in Paris. The first broadly spread the Auenbrugger proposed to him (in Vienna) percussion, i.e., the performance of the internal organs. The Auenbirdger method was in the chest ends of the fingers elongated and folded together. Corvisar has improved this method and reached the extraordinary accuracy of diagnoses for that time. Along with this, the huge merit of the Corvisar lay also that he was the founder of clinical medicine (see below) in France, and its essay on diseases and organic heart defects is still considered to be classic. From this book, it is obvious that Corvisar in many cases has already attached the ear to the heart area. A significant improvement of percussion was invented by French Pory (1794-1879). Much more merit in the field of the diagnosis of the Frenchman Lennec, an invented auscultation, which has completed a complete coup in this matter. Along with the auscultation and percussion (listening and tapping), microscopic studies of different discharge, sputum, tumors, blood, urine, feces (for opening worms or their testicles) are becoming increasingly important and more important and greater importance, the chemical tests of the contents of the stomach, urine, kala, etc. Dt. Finally, it was especially important in recognition of diseases that fully eating the 2nd half of the present century (see a), directly monitoring with mirrors of more or less hidden cavities (laryngoscopy, ophthalmoscopy, examination of bladder mirrors and T . d.), Research using probes and buzze, etc. When reading the norm in the structure of the structure and shipments of the body, as with the causes of them, it is already relatively easier to study what the impact is required to return it to the norm, t. e. Restore by external influence the initial structure and departure of both individual organs and the whole organism. In this way, that is, the doctrine of the actions of drugs with the specialties closest to it, it was also easy to put on the path of experiment and observation. Strictly speaking, the set of listed items is limited to the circle of scientific medicine medicine, since the listed knowledge was already led to the applied goals of medicine.

It is clear from all over, it is clear that familiarity with scientific medicine is unthinkable without laboratories, anatomical theaters, cabinets, museums, etc. But in life, all observed deviations and disorders and ways of exposure to certain moments on a healthy and sick organism represent extremely complex combinations, and Therefore, for the necessary study of diseases, their peculiar flow and conditions of impact on them, continuous observation of patients are required, which is most convenient in clinics - institutions, the merit of widespread development of which belongs almost exclusively to our century. As already mentioned above, it was said that while the number of painful types is very slightly, the number of individual diseases, in its diversity, is infinitely enormous, distributing into separate groups of internal diseases, surgery, gynecology, obstetrics, childhood diseases (pediatrics), contagious, earliest (otiatriya), eye (ophthalmic), nerve soulful (psychiatry), thorny (laryngology), etc. Although traces of teaching clinical medicine of the Greeks have survived, but only in the XVII century Flemish school in Leiden, in the face of the famous Burgawa, gives her a big push. Pupils of Burgawa, spreading his doctrine and ideas about clinical teaching from Leiden in Yu, Denmark, Austria, Italy, based centers of clinical education. Especially raised the value of the latter, thanks to the above-mentioned Corvizar. From that time clinic, diverse among the nearest, and clinical medicine is gaining more and more wider development and at present, teaching without them is unthinkable in any medical school.

The ultimate goal of scientific medicine medicine is treatment , therapy, which is considered to be the most backward industry from all areas of medical knowledge. Another beginning of the present century was captured by the dominant metaphysical ideas about the essence of the disease, which was treated with the latter, not a patient. In this respect, it is curious that at the beginning of the present century, under the influence of Bisch's views, the so-called "physiological medicine" was widely developed, the representative of which was Bruss, the senior doctor Val de Grass, and then a professor of general pathology in it, who admitted life for The result of external irritation acting on it, the disease - for the excess or lack of the latter. Based on such views, he found it necessary to eliminate the root of all sorts of suffering from incredible amounts of leeches. In his department in Val - de Grass, he in other years (1819) consumed for therapeutic purposes up to 100,000 leeches. His teaching found a lot of adherents, which can be seen from the fact that in 1824 the number of leeches imported to France was 300,000 pieces, and in 1827, during the greatest prospect of the exercise of Bruss, 33 million. The teaching of the Brussa was fascinated even a lot of doctors in Belgium, Italy and Germany, dominated about 20 years and probably indirectly strongly influenced the success of homeopathy, which represented the complete opposite of its dietetic regime with merciless hemologies of the fashionable school that collapsed, due to the rise of pathological anatomy and in particular diagnostics. Since that time, the present almost did not arise the template teachings about therapy; On the contrary, the latter more and more sought to individualize the patient and illness. With all that reproaches in a significant backwardness of therapy in comparison with other sectors, scientific medicine medicine is not well deserved (see). Not to mention the surgery, in which, thanks to the leisure, made possible operations in the cavities, until recently, those considered inaccessible, it is necessary, however, to point out that the effect of many drugs is studied in laboratories in the most thoroughly checked in clinics. Further, the huge merit of the therapy of the present century lies in the fact that it introduced a number of physical medicines, also studied in the highest degree in detail, such as massage and climatotherapy. In the same way, the diet of patients, the rules for their nutrition and regime received a very widespread development of the diet of sick, in many cases. At the disposal of doctors there are a number of highly studied specific tools, such as iron and manganese with small-class, chinin with a mixed fever, salicyl natter with rheumatism, mercury during syphilis, many anti-taponizing, anti-zelagic, drugs, and women; The case of antiseptics and disinfection, due to the abundance of anti-shirt and disinfecting medicinal substances, also put on a very wide leg. In the very recently, a thorough study of infectious diseases, the livelihoods of bacteria and the essence of immunity gave impetus to development in the widest sizes of serotherapy (see), i.e., the treatment of animal serum made immunity to various diseases by systematic administration in them weakened wiring of various bacteria or toxins produced by them. Less success acquired several years ago (see), i.e. Introduction to the body of exhausts of healthy organs of any animal, with the suffering of these organs in humans, or even direct feeding them (thyroid gland at zob, mucous membrane, kidney with britics disease, etc.). In a number of merit, scientific medicine medicine can not be indicated and the fact that, thanks to the successes of general pathology, she again managed to bring the heterogeneous specialties among themselves, which were still very recently separated from one another. For example, it is currently proved that a number of nerve suffering are devoid of their "essential" character, but are caused by diseases of various internal organs, are a consequence of syphilis, are caused by yu or diseases of the genital organs. Many of the suffering of internal organs, joints are dependent on the transfer, due to the transfer of the blood flow of blood or lymph into those or other places. The close relationship of autoinoxication (self-defense) not quite oxidized metabolic products, due to insufficient activity of the intestines and various organs, causes the phenomena of Malokrovia, hysteria and even psychosis. On the other hand, the accumulation of numerous facts and observations, which made it difficult for one person the development and study of the subject, caused such crushing of the specialties, which was impossible to think before and think. For example, gradually stood out of eye surgery, ear,. The ology, which is essentially a general pathology department, has grown in an extensive specialty. Being one of the most young sciences, she, thanks to the genius of Pasteur, took one of the most outstanding places, both by the accuracy of its data and in the exclusive value of the facts found by it, completely modified our views on illnesses and giving innumerable results in preventing and treatment. Diseases. Paster himself and its numerous students, of which DUKLO, RU, etc., gave the basis of rational serotherapy. Another famous bacteriologist, Koh, and his disciples Bering, Kitosato, etc., also enriched this science. Bering we owe anti-informitate serum. The Kitosato Japanese belongs to the destruction of the opening of anti-trust serum, etc. Skin diseases, acquiring more and more close relationships with internal and nervous suffering, alone alone in perfectly special science requiring the participation of many employees.

But not only the treatment of disease is applied using scientific medicine medicine. Her successes were reflected in the broad state, public and individual development of an applied, warning disease of the problem - hygiene and prevention, huge successes of which would be completely incomprehensible if the study was founded exclusively on one rough empirical. Only knowledge of the norms of the structure and shipments of the body, the conditions of the contributing or violating their correct condition and the right activity, could develop that applied science, thanks to which it was reduced, the duration of average life was extended, the soreness was reduced and human performance increased. Finally, only scientific medicine medicine could give forensic medicine that the nature of the unconditional accuracy, which is so often the indication of its instructions in solving certain questions, as, for example, the permeability of the OS, the shrimp of the person, kind, nature and the values \u200b\u200bof damage, etc.

Thus, from all the above, it is obvious that scientific medicine medicine exists one for all sectors of her and practitioner, wanting in their activities with success and consciously refer to their duties, should not only rely on their observations and experience, but follow and prosper His science in laboratories, clinics and other educational institutions, remembering that these successes facilitate him his task of treating patients and disease prevention. The science of medicine, as an integral part of natural science, can continue to progress, not losing sight of the further movement forward of other areas of knowledge with which it is closely related to the community of learning techniques and thinking. About the successes of medical sciences in Russia - see Russia (science).

Medicine is one of the most ancient industries of science, which has its task recognition, treatment, prevention of the disease and the promotion of people's health. For centuries, the nature and level of development of medicine changed depending on the material conditions of society. The development of medicine is closely related to the development of natural sciences, philosophy and technology.

Modern medicine is a complex complex of scientific knowledge, including data on the structure of the human body (anatomy, histology), about its livelihoods in a healthy and sore state (physiology, pathological anatomy and pathological physiology), the doctrine of the recognition of the disease ( ), the doctrine of the treatment of various diseases (therapy, surgery and others), about medicines and their use (pharmacy and pharmacology), hygiene, which studies the impact of living conditions for human health and measures aimed at preventing the disease. The development of medicine led to the allocation of private medical disciplines - obstetrics and gynecology, dermatology and venereology, neurology, ophthalmology, otolaryngology, pediatrics, psychiatry, epidemiology and other. Specialization made it possible to deepen and expand knowledge about the structure and functions of the human body and significantly improved the possibility of combating diseases.

Medicine in Socialist countries and in capitalist countries has fundamental differences. Medical science in capitalist countries is under the strong influence of various reactionary idealistic theories. Materially dependent on entrepreneurs, from the firms producing drugs, from private doctors, it is forced to fulfill their orders and requirements. The state is usually in a very small way helps medical science and practice. Large achievements of outstanding scientists of capitalist countries are often the subject of exploitation and profit. Advanced medical figures are fighting for making medicine to the service of the people.

Medicine in socialist countries is developing in the interests of the entire people, puts its task to protect the health of workers. Caring for the health of workers has become one of the most important functions of socialist states, and the state character of medical care has become one of its leading principles. In the USSR, one of the first decrees of the Soviet government canceled the provision of medical care. The legislative guarantees are provided with the opportunity to enjoy this right (the right to rest, material support in case of illness and disability, as well as in old age, the state protection of the interests of the mother and child and others (see ). The philosophical basis of medical science in the USSR is a dialectic - materialistic understanding of nature, society and man. The teachings of I. P. Pavlova - naturally - the scientific basis of medicine in the USSR; It helps to understand the phenomena occurring in the body of a patient and a healthy person, and find out the connection of the body and the external environment. Medical science in the USSR is the subject of constant care of the state.

Medicine emerged in deep antiquity - in primitive peoples. The need to assist in damage, during childbirth allowed to accumulate knowledge of signs of illness, about therapeutic means of the forces of nature, as well as drugs from the plant and animal world. For centuries, this initial experience was collected, enriched, and the most valuable part of it was subsequently used by scientific medicine. The helplessness of a primitive person before the forces of nature led to the fact that, along with rational data and receptions, amulets, conspiracies, spells and other techniques weighing are widespread. Even many centuries before our era in slave-owned class societies, the division of labor and the occurrence of crafts, and together with them - injury and illness, led to the emergence of professionals - healers. At the same time, representatives of various religions were largely taken to their hands in their own ways - there was a so-called temple, priestly medicine, which considered the disease as the punishment of God and the means of combating diseases considered prayers and sacrifices. However, along with temple medicine, medicine has continued to develop empirical. Help medical knowledge, professionals in Egypt, Assyria and Babylonia, India and China opened new treatments for diseases. The appearance of writing made it possible to consolidate their experience in the first medical writings.

Ancient Chinese medicine already in the early stages of its development possessed many knowledge of the health of people and their treatment. In ancient China, a wide distribution had variolation - the vaccination of the contents of the bubbles of natural pieces of healthy people in order to prevent them from the disease. The reasoned tips on the hygienic mode, which should be observed in order to be healthy. China used operations with anesthesia using hashish and opium. A variety of medicines from the plant and animal world were diverse (for example, ginseng and panty-horns of a young spotted deer - still used as medicines). A peculiar Chinese treatments were developed: the ignition - Moxa - and acupuncture - acupuncture, as well as Su Jock Acupuncture, which have been widespread and applied today; The first major doctors appeared, for example, Bean Qio, who lived in the 6th century to our era and left the "treatise on diseases", which describes the diagnosis of the pulse. Later, the surgeon Hua Tu (2 century) and the author of 52-languid pharmacopoeia Li Shi-Zheng (16th century) received a wide fame. The influence of Chinese medicine (medicine) has spread to many countries of the East.

Indian medicine also emerged in ancient times and developed independently. Medical information was reflected in the arms of the laws of Manu (2 century BC) and in Ayurveda (Life Books), in which, as well as in Chinese medicine, was given great importance to hygiene prescriptions: the physical exercises were recommended, drug abuse and condemned and alcohol, recommended compliance with cleanliness, body care; The rules were justified - the use of meat was limited, plant food and milk were recommended. Many diseases were distinctly described - leprosy, hemorrhoids, mental illnesses, jaundice and others. Specialists appeared - doctors who treated certain diseases, for example. Surgical or bites of poisonous snakes. Surgery was considered in India the first and best of all medical sciences. In the ancient Indian, as in the ancient Chinese, medicine, much attention was paid to the studies of the pulse and urine. The outstanding doctor of sushu-root (one of the authors of Ayurveda) was trying to develop a general theory of medicine, where the theoretical justification was supplied for the experience gained by medical techniques, it was stated that three beginnings were combined in the human body - air, mucus and bile. However, if the practice of Indian medicine gave satisfactory results, the theory of it was built on fantastic assumptions.

Ancient Greek doctors played a huge role in the development of medicine. The famous doctor, a philosopher and naturalist Hippocrat (460-377 BC) taught observation physicians and a careful study of the patient. The requirement to treat is not a disease, but the patient was its main principle; He considered the task of the doctor - to help the body's natural forces defeated the disease. In the numerous writings that have come down to us in the form of a "Hippocratian collection", the system of views that helped doctors for many centuries to recognize diseases and treat them. The materialistic idea of \u200b\u200bthe illness, which was indicated by Hippocrates, struggling with those who gave them a religious explanation, reflected the experience gained over the centuries; Particular attention was paid to the Wednesday in which a person lives, on the influence of climate, water, soil, lifestyle to the origin of the disease. Hippocrates and his follower of the Roman doctor Galen (131-210 of our era), the anatomical and physiological representations of which served as the basis of medicine up to the 16th century, had a huge impact on the development of medicine in Europe: for many centuries [before Avicenna appeared (Ibn Sina , about 980-1037)] These two prestige in the field of medicine were highest.

In the era of the Middle Ages, medicine in Western European countries was subordinate to the church and was influenced by scholasticism. Doctors founded the diagnosis and treatment not on the observation of patient and rational medical measures, but on distracted arguments; The church forbade the opening of the corpses, which slowed down the development of medicine. Since the doctors were prohibited from performing operations, always related to bleeding, surgery, in contrast to therapy, was in the hands of uneducated marigos, fireproofs and the like. Little medical faculties of universities were preparing an insignificant number of doctors; Only in a few of them - in Salerno and in Padua (Italy) - scientific work was carried out.

In this era, in all European countries, doctors were guided by the ideas of the famous book "Canon of medical science", created by an outstanding Central Asian Avician physician (IBN Sinai). A major philosopher, naturalist and doctor Avicenna systematically outlined medical knowledge of his era, enriching each section of medicine. Observation Avicenna allowed him to open up new ways to the diagnosis and treatment of diseases. The great importance of Ibn Sina attached the effect of the environment in which a person lives; Therefore, the hygiene section "Canon" was developed especially in detail. Medieval Eastern Medicine has advanced other wonderful doctors: Arian (864-U25) in its work on PSAP and Corey gave a description of these diseases, Ali Ibn Abbas (died in 994), Ibn al-Haysam (965-1038 GG) and others made a lot of valuable discoveries in medicine.

The revival era brought a new heyday of medicine in the 16th century Anate Flemandes A. Vesaly, who worked at the University of Paduan, corrected Galen's mistakes in the teaching on the structure of the human body and laid the foundations of a truly scientific anatomy. The development of natural science, in particular physics and chemistry, helped the emergence of new principles in medicine - were made by the first successful attempts to use the laws of physics and chemistry in the treatment of diseases (Iatropsis and Iatrochemistry, from Greek Iatros- doctor). Surgery developed practitioner practitioners, among which the French surgeon Ambruz Pare made a number of valuable methods, in particular to the processing of the Russian Academy of Sciences (replaced the moxibustion of the wounds with iron slush tissue with iron).

Development in the 17-18 century industry and an increase in the number of workers put forward the task of studying professional pathology: the Italian doctor B. Ramazzcini in labor "on artisan diseases" described about 50 professional diseases. English doctor W. Gayway in 1628 published his work on blood circulation. This discovery was encouraged by official science hostile, and it took many years to ensure that the Garwa's doctrine becomes generally recognized. The clinical principle of the patient's observation, accompanied by an experienced testing, acquired an increasing distribution. Professor of Leiden University G. Burgave brought pleany of prominent doctors, standing in new positions: Materialist Materialist J. O. Lameter in France, J. Blindle in England, Van Switen in Austria, A. Galler in Germany and many others.

In this era, the struggle in medicine between materialistic and idealistic currents was continued: the Vitalym, according to which life phenomena allegedly manage special intangible, supernatural forces ("life force", "Entelokhiya", "Soul"), opposed to materialistic views, developed in the Netherlands G. Lerua (1598 - 1679), in France J. Lamemetri (1709-51, his book "Man-car") and P. Kabanis (1757 - 1808), a leader of the French revolution.

In the 19th century, capitalism won in Europe as a socio-economic formation brought significant, expanding research in the field of medicine. However, as in the previous formations, medicine was delivered to the service to dominant classes. The successes of natural science, primarily physics, chemistry and biology, made it possible to enrich medicine with new methods. The doctrine of the structure and activities of the human body was replenished with a new discipline - pathological anatomy, the founder of which was the Padanian doctor J. Morgali (1682 - 1771). Pathological anatomy made it possible to compare the external manifestations of diseases with structural changes in organs and tissues at a particular disease. The openings of the dead made it possible not only to accumulate a huge material explaining the course of the disease, but also to control the actions of the doctor (the proactic - premises in which the corpses of the dead patients were revealed, became a mandatory component of the hospital); There was an opportunity to compare the data of the lifetime observation with the autopsy data. A new approach in understanding the disease was progressive and gave a strong impetus for the development of medicine. However, during the development process, he led to the creation of theories that exaggerate the importance of local changes.

The doctrine of body tissues created by the French Anatoma and Medicine Surgeon Bisha (1771 - 1802) was a major stage in the study of the human body. Bisha listed 21 fabrics from which each has different functions and properties. The creation of teachings on the cellular structure of plants and animals by the German scientist T. Svannown was crucial influence on the development of medicine. The opening of energy transformation laws is the second great discovery that contributed to the development of biology and medicine. Based on this law, the development of natural science was going forward quickly, and medicine received a scientific principle into their own hands, explaining many phenomena of physiology. Biological chemistry and other disciplines caused to life with this law have made it possible to enrich medicine with new diagnostic and therapeutic opportunities.

The evolutionary doctrine of Ch. Darwin is the third great discovery that had great importance to medicine. Thanks to the discovery of Darwin, natural science not only became the system of materialistic knowledge of nature, but also made it possible to approach the solution of such problems of biology and medicine as heredity and its role in the development of human diseases, the correct understanding of the laws of origin and development of diseases. Scientists of Russia have played a big role in the development and propaganda of Darwinism. A fierce ideological struggle, which turned around Darwin's teachings, divided natural scientists into two groups - those who made the right materialist conclusions from the teachings, and those who tried to resist Darwinism, defend idealistic positions, as well as criticize Darwinism from the standpoint of religion.

Developed capitalism led to the growth of cities and crowded population, which strengthened the danger of epidemics. In the new conditions, medicine tried to solve the challenges nominated by life. The English doctor E. Jenner in 1798 successfully made the vaccination of the cow's smallpox to man, thus developing the method of combating infectious diseases by vaccinations. Cracking, with the support of advanced doctors, quickly spread throughout countries. Public health issues, its tasks and forms were developed by the German doctor I. P. Frank; In the overhaul of the "Full Medical Police System" (1779 - 1819), he proceeded from the thought that Healthcare was a matter of state. Another decision was offered a contemporary franc German scientist X. Gufelland, who put personal hygiene at the head of the corner.

The successes of medicine are closely intertwined with the successes of natural sciences. In the first half of the 19th century, physiology joined the path of a broad experiment. English surgeon and physiologist C. Bell experimentally studied the distribution of sensitive and motor fibers in the front and rear spots of the spinal nerves. The establishment of this fact and the development of its Franz. Physiologist F. Majandi contributed to the identification of the activity of the nervous system in the body, the emergence of experimental physiology as the basis of medicine. The numerous discoveries of the German scientist I. Muller, who studied the structure and functions of the senses, the structure of the glands, the composition of the blood and lymph was even more important. One of the first Muller began to develop physiological chemistry. The experimental method was successfully used by many students of I. Muller - I. Liborkun, K. Ludwig, E. Gekkel, R. Virchov, Gelmgolts. Widely using the physiological experiment, the French scientist K. Bernard in the mid-19th century raised its goal to combine physiology, pathology and therapy. The famous experience of K. Bernard - Damage to the bottom of the brain ventricular at the experimental animal, causing a significant increase in blood sugar, was one of the links in a series of his experiments on the study of the functions of the liver and its role in the process of learning food. Physiology K. Bernard put on the service of the clinic. His successes in the study of the processes of digestion, blood circulation and diseases of these systems allowed him to nominate the thesis: "An experimental doctor - there is a doctor's doctor." However, the successes of the physiologists of Majandi, Muller, Bernard in concrete areas But they got rid of them from understanding the processes of life from the position of idealistic philosophy. Only with the advent of the works of Russian researchers, first of all S. P. Botkin, I. Medicine Sechenov, I. P. Pavlova, were first correctly, materialistically, the laws of activity of the central nervous system and the whole organism as a whole were disclosed. Materialistic, scientific interpretation of mental phenomena - thinking and consciousness - was given in the work of Sechenov "Brain Reflexes" (1863). Russian scientists rebuilt the physiology and had a profound impact on the development of medicine.

The development of pathology in the middle of the 19th century led to the struggle of its two areas - humoral (from the Latin Humor - liquid) and the so-called cell. The representative of the first - Viennese pathologist K. The Rokitansky cause of painful phenomena considered changes in the composition of the juices of the human body. He objected the German pathologist R. Virhov; In his book, "Cellular Pathology" (1858), he argued that the source of the disease is the abnormal activity of cells ("the whole pathology is the pathology of the cell"). The merit of Virchova was an application of a cell doctrine to study diseases. They were clarified changes in the tissues and cells of organs caused by the disease, which enriched clinical medicine and facilitated the diagnosis. However, Virchov's theory, its cell pathology overestimated the role of cells, reducing the essence of the disease only to the damage to certain cells and denying the unity of the body and the value of the central nervous system. Russian scientists Medicine Sechenov, I. P. Pavlov, N. I. Pirogov, S. P. Botkin and others, sharply criticized the cell pathology of Virhov, opposing it with the idea of \u200b\u200bthe unity of the body and the environment and the leading role in it (both in healthy and the lead Patient condition) central nervous system.

Thanks to the successes of natural science, clinical medicine has been enriched with new methods of diagnosis and treatment. The possibilities of treatment expanded, in particular due to a significant improvement in the methods of clinical research. Doctors began to apply percussion (skipping), auscultation (listening), measuring body temperature. The diagnostic technique in the 19th century was replenished with devices based on the study of physical and chemical phenomena: blood pressure measurement, bronchoscopy, electrocardiography, microscopic study of blood formation elements. A large step forward was the discovery in 1894 by the German scientist V. K. X-ray X-ray and the use of them for diagnosis and therapy (see ). The development of chemistry, chemical industries, and then the pharmaceutical industry provided a large number of new effective medicines at the disposal of clinicians.

Surgery in the 19th century survived a new stage of development, as the surgeons realized the need for a deeper study of the anatomy for the success of operational interventions. N. I. Pirogov played a big role in this, which developed a new discipline - topographic anatomy - and issued anatomy-surgical atlas. The surgical method has become widely applied in many clinical specialties - in the treatment of female diseases, eye and others.

The most important stage in medicine in the 2nd half of the 19th century, related to development It was the establishment of the French scientist L. Pasteur the role of microbes in the occurrence of infectious diseases. The pathogens of the Siberian ulcers, return typhoid, amoebic dysentery, abdominal typhoid, tuberculosis, plague, cholera and others were discovered. Methods for treating and preventing infectious diseases were developed: in 1881, vaccinations against Siberian ulcers were developed, in 1885 - against rabies (Pasteur, France), in 1890, against diphtheria [ә. Bering (Germany), S. Kitazato (Japan), E. Ru (France)] and others. The doctrine of immunity and the new branch of Science - Immunology (one of the founders of which I. I. Mechnikov was armed with medicine with new means of combating infectious diseases - vaccines and serums (so-called immunotherapy). Further development of microbiology in the 20th century led to the allocation into an independent discipline of the teachings on viruses - virology.

Based on the discoveries of microbiology, there made great successes and hygiene. Growth in the 19th century of large cities, large industrial centers, their unsanitary state was threatened by the life and health of the population; This stimulated the development of broad scientific research in the field of hygiene and sanitation. The German scientist Medicine Pettencofer applied experimental research methods, giving hygiene scientific base. The study of the effect of air, water and soil on the human body made it possible to put a water pipe, sewage and dwelling on the scientific soil. Pettenco's students - Russian scientists F. F. Erisman, A. P. Dobroslavin and others - developed the direction created by Pettenkofer, founding the Russian School of Hygienists, for which the study of social factors - systematic accounting of the main indicators of statistics and the dynamics of public health (fertility, mortality, morbidity, physical development and the like).

Wide use in medicine both for recognition and for the treatment of diseases, in addition to X-rays, also radioactive substances (see,). In the 20th century, the doctrine of vitamins was created and their role was established in the prevention of diseases and their treatment [work of the Polish scientist K. Futus (1912), confirming the conclusions and experiments of Russian scientists N. I. Lunin (1880) and V. in . Pashutin (1902)]. The development of organic chemistry since the beginning of the 2nd half of the 19th century led to the emergence of chemistry of synthetic drugs, and the synthesis in 1909 by the German scientist P. Erlich powerful anti-silicite tool - Salvarsan - laid the foundation of modern chemotherapy. The largest achievement in the field of chemotherapy was discovery and use with therapeutic purposes of sulfonamide drugs (German scientist G. Domagk, 1935), and then - antibiotics.

In the USSR, medicine received tremendous development opportunities provided to it by the conditions of a new socialist public and state system. In the USSR, medical science develops in accordance with the requests for the protection and promotion of public health, to fulfill the implementation of a wide network of research institutions.

Since the philosophical basis of medicine in the USSR is dialectical materialism, Soviet doctors deeper and more correctly approach to solving such nodal issues of medicine as a question about the relationship of social and biological, on the organization of the body with the environment, about the leading role of the nervous system.

The preventive orientation of medicine in the USSR is the most characteristic of its trait. The physiological teaching of I. P. Pavlova, synthesizing the best progressive achievements of world scientific physiology, is creatively used in all areas of medicine. Close contact with practice allows not only to quickly respond to life requests, but also to use data from a huge network of medical institutions for scientific research.

One of the most important principles underlying the Soviet medical science is the principle of development, evolution. The evolutionary direction was reflected especially in major studies A. A. Zavarzin and N. G. Khlopin. For morphology, it is also characteristic of the evolutionary direction, also the principle of communication, unity of the form (structure) and functions. This direction is the most vivid expression in the works of V.N. Tonkov and V. P. Vorobyeva, B. I. Lavrentyeva. In the field of topography, Anatomy V. N. Shevkunenko and his students developed issues of age "typical" anatomy, which is of great importance for practical surgery. Pathological anatomy in the USSR represented by its representatives A. I. Abrikosov, I. V. Davydovsky and others. Consistently develops a clinical and anatomical direction.

Pathophysiology in the USSR is directly related to the clinic. Student I. P. Pavlova A. D. Speransky widely developed the idea of \u200b\u200bPavlov about the nervous trophic and put forward the leading role of the nervous factor in the pathogenesis of various human diseases. They have the importance of the works of N. N. Anichkova and his staff on diseases of the arteries, in particular atherosclerosis, in infectious pathology. Numerous works of A. A. Bogomolets and his disciples are devoted to the problems of longevity. The works of I. P. Pavlov in the development of domestic pharmacology are played a major role. In the studies of N. P. Kravkov, who developed the idea of \u200b\u200bPavlov, it should be noted experiments on isolated organs, work on the study of internal secretion. The successes of chemotherapy in the USSR and the development of the chemical pharmaceutical industry, the synthesis of new Soviet preparations are connected with pharmacological studies.

Socio-preventic Election of Soviet health and medical science is particularly complete expression finds in hygienic disciplines (general, communal, labor hygiene, nutrition hygiene, school). Among the hygienic disciplines, social hygiene was taken by a special place, in the development of which the preiser theorists and the organizers of the Soviet health care N. A. Semashko, 3. P. Solovyov. Great development received: communal hygiene due to the emergence and rapid growth of new cities, the country's reconstruction and giant housing construction; labor hygiene, in front of which there were new tasks caused by the mechanization of agricultural production, the introduction of new production processes and the creation of new industries; Power hygiene due to the wide development of catering.

A prominent place in Soviet medicine occupied epidemiology, microbiology and virology. New highly efficient: antimalarial, anti-binding, anti-cancer, anti-influenza and other are designed and put into practice. Large scientific advances have been achieved by Soviet microbiologists and epidemiologists in solving the problem of viral infections - Springne - summer encephalitis, Japanese (mosquito) encephalitis in the Far East, RicketTSiosis, hemorrhagic fever and other, in the fight against malaria (works of P. G. Sergiyev, V. N . Beklemishev and others). E. N. Pavlovsky and his students created a new theory about the natural foci of transmissible diseases, which showed that the source of infection for various diseases is not always a sick person, but in some cases and various animals in natural conditions of nature.

From the clinical disciplines, the teachings of I. P. Pavlova first provided influenced the development of the clinic of internal diseases: the work of V. P. Exodinova, N. D. Strazesko, A. I. Yarotsky, N. I. Leporsky, belonging to diseases of the abdominal bodies cavities, studies of F. Lang and A. L. Myasnikova, V. F. Zelenina and other hypertension, diseases, heart disease and vessels, E. M. Taarev - for kidney disease. Soviet surgery escaped a narrow practical slope (information of surgery for operational techniques) and develops as an advanced scientific and practical, clinical discipline with a prophylactic direction. The issues of abdominal surgery are widely represented in the works of I. I. Grekova, S. S. Yudina and others; Brilliant work in the field of heart surgery belongs to A. N. Bakulevu, A. A. Vishnevsky, I. I. Ghanelidze, P. A. Kupriyanov, E. N. Meshalkina, B. V. Petrovsky; In the development of neurosurgery, N. N. Burdenko, A. L. Polenov and others were made a lot; In the field of surgery, the treatment of tumors is a large place occupy the work of N. N. Petrova, P. A. Herzen, A. G. Savina, A. I. Savitsky, N. N. Blokhin et al. No less successfully develop other industries of clinical Medicine.

Medicine research is conducted on government plans. The highest scientific and medical body of the country that leads guidance in this area is the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR, founded in 1944.

The successes of medical science in the USSR contributed to the outstanding and fundamental importance of achievements - a sharp decline in general and child mortality, improving life expectancy, reduction of infectious diseases, liquidation in the USSR such diseases as plague, cholera, natural suite, returning title. Close to liquidation of malaria, syphilis and many other diseases.

Decree of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR dated January 14, 1960 "On measures to further improve medical care and the health of the public health of the USSR" contributed to a significant increase in the material opportunities of the development of medicine in the USSR and put the task before it, the permission of which will bring to the elimination of the most severe Diseases (cancer and other) and to a new step to raise the struggle for human health and his longevity.

: Associated Ataman - Neusati. A source: t. XXA (1897): Associated Ataman - Neusati, p. 696-700 ()

Scientific medicine. - The same term is usually incorrectly used in the sense of opposite medicine practical; But the latter in all its manifestations - in the patient's bed, in solving sanitary or judicial issues, there is nothing other than the applied application of common N. The foundations of medicine to those or other everyday, practical Therefore, it should also be N. Thus, under N. medicine, you should imply only the combination of theoretical and practical study of medical science, which gives a doctor the possibility of versatile treatment and prevention of diseases, as in facilitating the state, society and individuals in solving issues requiring knowledge purchased by medical science. Medicine, being part of natural science, at the same time, science is collective, including a number of a variety of branches of knowledge. The successes of her stand in close connection with the progress of natural sciences and its level of development always corresponded to the simultaneous state of natural science; For broad generalizations of natural phenomena and their main reasons, those or other dominant philosophical flows of thought have always reflected. Finally, the development of social sciences affected not without influence on the level of our medical knowledge. But natural sciences, especially physics and chemistry have the greatest importance for medicine, and in recent decades - botany and zoology of lower animals, which have enormous influence on the development of bacteriology and generally indicated the significance of lower organisms in pathology. This impact is determined not only by the fact that natural sciences are at the heart of the study of the human body, healthy and patient, but even more because the methods that natural resources enjoy are also served to study medicine. Feature of natural sciences is accuracydue to methods of studying nature: experience, observation and flowing out of this generalization. The same principle is guided by N. Medicine. For example, the opening of the oxygen of the Lavoisier was tremendous to study the physiology of respiration. The hydrostatics served as the basis for the study of blood circulation; The success of knowledge about electricity opened new horizons in the physiology of nervous and muscle systems. The law of struggle for existence explains to us a lot of phenomena in the field of infectious diseases, etc. As now in the study of nature, the biological principle is dominated, then medicine, disrespecting from the influence of previously dominated philosophical systems - yatrochimikov, yatrophysics, animists, natural philosophers, etc. D., herself became one of the branches of biological sciences and, as such, at the very creature itself - the science inductive and, only as numerous facts accumulate, it can use deductive teaching techniques.

The basis for the study of any organism in general, the human body in particular is the exact knowledge of its normal structure and normal shipments, anatomy and physiology of the body. In this regard, both sciences, especially the first, reached the currently extraordinary height. Morphological study of the human body, with the exception of the few organs, almost ended. A huge impetus to our modern knowledge of the anatomy at the very beginning of the present century, the famous Bisha (1771-1802; see), who set in his essay "On Life and Death" (Paris, 1800) aim to indicate that all vital processes are the direct expression of physical and Chemical properties of organic formations. In this principle, the influence of the vitalism that prevailed in the Medical School of Montpelle also affected. But the main merit consisted of learning tissues The organism both in their physiological and pathological relationships. Microscopic anatomy for this century also made enormous successes, on the one hand, thanks to the improvement of microscopic technology and research methods (histophysics, histoochemistry, isolated cells, microtomy, staining and fixing drugs, etc.), on the other - the wonderful discoveries of Shleiden ( 1838) and Schwanna (1839), especially the latter, which has proven the identity of plant and animal cells (see Cell). Embryology has acquired enormous importance in the study of tissues and organs, the study of the development of the embryo from the egg, which was rendered by unforgettable services two SPb. Academician Panter (1773-1865) and Bair (1792-1876). The improvement of microscopic equipment made it possible to explore not only the structure of a healthy and sick cell, in the lively and dead of it, but also to observe the processes in it performed. Modern acquaintance with infectious diseases, with immunity and other issues of physiology, pathology was possible only due to the study of the reaches of the lower organisms and cells of the tissues, their struggle and processes, while taking place under the microscope.

Study of the departments of the body, i.e. physiology (see), also has also reached an extraordinary height at present, thanks to the wonderful works of Johann Miller (1801-1858), Purkinje, Du-Boua Reimon, Bishoff in Germany, Genial Claude Bernard, Flurans , Lonez, Charles Bell, et al. Especially affected by the enrichment of our physiological knowledge of the enormous success of the chemistry, from which such an important industry was stated as physiological chemistry, who had a breath, nutrition, metabolic issues, and in general cell chemistry, tissue and juice chemistry. Similarly, physics, especially its laws of conservation of energy and unity of physical forces, gave a lot of data to clarify those observed in a healthy and sore body of phenomena. Knowledge of the normal structure and normal shipments of the body allows us to evaluate all the deviations from them, that is, to assimilate the pathological anatomy and pathological physiology. Pathological anatomy In his success always followed the success of normal and, similar to the latter, was not limited to the study of the changes alone, visible, but using the microscope and experimenting on animals, followed the course of pathological changes in tissues and organs, under the influence of various conditions. In this regard, the greatest services provided this science Rudolf Virchov, who made it from a purely descriptive subject to an emergency philosophical height. Based on the main Omnis Cellula E Cellula, that is, every cell from the cell, he subjected to the most complete and comprehensive development of almost all departments of pathological anatomy. His famous student Konheim has a huge merit of the study of inflammation (see), indicating the role of white blood balls. Currently, it is very difficult to separate the pathological anatomy from the general pathology, so these both science are closely related to each other. And in these sectors of medical knowledge, observation and experiment more and more expanded our views. Knowing an anatomical structure, chemical composition and physical properties of any tissue of the body, you can specify what the change in all of its component elements has been expressed. For example, we define not only the rebirth of the tissues, their qualitative and quantitative change, the change of the chemical composition of blood, lymphs, various discharges, modification of the bone density, changes in the color of the skin and mucous membranes, but very often indicate the reasons that influenced that. Similarly, we can judge and deviate from the norm of various shipments of the body. Knowing the normal temperature of the human body, the degree of reduction of muscle fibers, the phenomenon of normal hydrodiffusion in the tissues and causes, which are determined, we can compare the increased or reduced temperature, a decrease or even loss of muscle contraction (paresa and paralysis) or, on the contrary, excessive strengthening it (cramps), the formation of effluents, etc. Acquaintance with the reasons for these deviations, knowledge of the conditions under which they occurred allows you to put a well-known connection between them. So, for example, the increased activity of the heart can entail it hypertrophy. Knowing it, it is already easier to look for the causes of increased activities. Thus, going from in common to particular, it can be found that the increased activity is due to obstacles for normal blood circulation requiring a large stress to eliminate them, or that it may depend on the introduction of substances into the body that annoying that part of the nervous heart system that accelerates its activities , or from paralysis of a wandering nerve, delaying cardiac activity, etc. Along with this, studying the ratio of causes and consequences, we are based on the fact that the same reason is not limited to a certain consequence, but causes a number of Their, which depends on the simultaneous action to many centers, or from the fact that one consequence inevitably entails others. So, for example, introducing any poison to the body, we see that many organs are amazed and a lot of shipments are violated. Each of these deviations, in turn, entails a number of others. Thus, general pathology allows us to study the heterogeneity of the consequences, to reduce them to one general beginning, knowing which, it is easier for us to determine what impact is required to return the body to normal. "Using all the data from other sciences, collecting from all medical knowledge, from all departments of private pathology, material to clarify the essence and causes of painful phenomena, finally, reproducing painful changes, similar to human, modern general pathology, finds and establish laws for which everything is committed possible evasion of the norm; It thus creates a number of types of painful processes and is a truly common part of the entire volume of private pathology "(I. V. Podweysotsky). In addition to the study of typical painful processes occurring in all parts of the body, it includes a comprehensive study of the main evasion from the normal function of circulatory, digestion, etc. d. The number of the main types of painful processes, no matter how reasons and in any kind of organ, they are very small, but, due to various mutual grouping, or due to the localization of painful processes in various parts of the body, or due to different tensions in their detection, The number of individual species and forms of diseases achieve huge sizes. For example, the processes of inflammation (see) are the same everywhere, but it manifests itself completely different in the mucous membranes of the intestinal channel and in the bone system. Fevering processes in infectious diseases may proceed completely differently in a healthy man, or at a small-class entity with one or another vice heart, or in a pregnant woman. Knowledge of general pathology facilitates the possibility of studying private pathology, the subject of which will be both separate painful forms and diseases of those or other organs, the symptoms they are detected, and the changes they cause. Recognition of these changes and the definition of the entity of suffering is subject diagnostics , which at the present century has gained extreme development, on the one hand, thanks to the introduction of physical methods of the study of the patient, on the other - microscopic and chemical analysis of the discharge or even tissue of the body (test punctures, removal of tumor pieces for research under the microscope, etc.). Hasive merit in this regard acquired the French Corvisar (1755-1821) and Lennek (1781-1826), both professors of medicine in Paris. The first broadly spread the Auenbrugger proposed to him (in Vienna) percussion, i.e., the performance of the internal organs. The Auenbirdger method was in the chest ends of the fingers elongated and folded together. Corvisar has improved this method and reached the extraordinary accuracy of diagnoses for that time. Along with this, the huge merit of the Corvisar lay also that he was the founder of clinical medicine (see below) in France, and its essay on diseases and organic heart defects is still considered to be classic. From this book, it is obvious that Corvisar in many cases has already attached the ear to the heart area. A significant improvement in Percussion was invented by French Pari (1794-1879) a plaster. Much more merit in the field of the diagnosis of the Frenchman Lennec, an invented auscultation, which has completed a complete coup in this matter. Along with the auscultation and percussion (listening and tapping), microscopic studies of different discharge, sputum, tumors, blood, urine, feces (for opening worms or their testicles) are becoming increasingly important and more important and greater importance. Finally, the thermometry is especially important in recognition of diseases of thermometry, which fully eating the 2nd half of the present century (see Fever), directly monitoring with mirrors of more or less hidden cavities (laryngoscopy, ophthalmoscopy, uterine mirrors, urinary bubble, etc.), research using probes and buzze, etc. Having read the norm in the structure of the structure and shipments of the body, as well as the reasons for them, it is already relatively easier to study what impact is required to return it to norm, i.e., restore by external influence the initial structure and departure of both individual organs and the entire body Izm. In this way, pharmacology, i.e., the doctrine on the actions of drugs with the specialties closest to it, also easily put on the path of experiment and observation. Strictly speaking, the set of listed objects is limited to the circle of N. Medicine, since the listed knowledge was already led to the applied goals of medicine.

It is clear from all over, it is clear that the acquaintance with N. medicine is unthinkable without laboratories, anatomical theaters, cabinets, museums, etc. But in life, all observed deviations and disorders and ways of exposure to individual moments on a healthy and sick body represent extremely complex combinations, and Therefore, for the necessary study of diseases, their peculiar flow and conditions of impact on them, continuous observation of patients are required, which is most convenient in clinics - institutions, the merit of widespread development of which belongs almost exclusively to our century. As already mentioned above, it was said that while the number of painful types is very slightly, the number of individual diseases, in its diversity, is infinitely enormous, distributing into separate groups of internal diseases, surgery, gynecology, obstetrics, childhood diseases (pediatrics), contagious, earliest (otiatriya), eye (ophthalmic), nerve soulful (psychiatry), thorny (laryngology), etc. Although traces of teaching clinical medicine of the Greeks have survived, but only in the XVII century Flemish school in Leiden, in the face of the famous Burgawa, gives her a big push. Pupils of Burgawa, spreading his doctrine and ideas about clinical teaching from Leiden to Scotland, Denmark, Austria, Italy, based clinical education centers. Especially raised the value of the latter, thanks to the above-mentioned Corvizar. From that time clinic, diverse among the nearest, and clinical medicine is gaining more and more wider development and at present, teaching without them is unthinkable in any medical school.

The ultimate goal of N. Medicine is treatment , therapy, which is considered to be the most backward industry from all areas of medical knowledge. Another beginning of the present century was captured by the dominant metaphysical ideas about the essence of the disease, which was treated with the latter, not a patient. In this respect, it is curious that at the beginning of the present century, under the influence of Bisha's views, the so-called "physiological medicine" was widely developed, the representative of which was Bruss, the senior doctor Val de Grass, and then a professor of general pathology in it, who admitted life for The result of external irritation acting on it, the disease - for the excess or lack of the latter. Based on such views, he found it necessary to eliminate the root of all sorts of suffering from incredible amounts of leeches. In his office in Val de Grass, he in other years (1819) consumed for therapeutic purposes up to 100,000 leeches. His teaching found a lot of adherents, which can be seen from the fact that in 1824 the number of leeches imported to France was 300,000 pieces, and in 1827, during the greatest prospect of the exercise of the Bruss, 33 million. The teaching of the Brussa fascinated even Italy and Germany, dominated about 20 years and probably indirectly strongly influenced the success of homeopathy, which represented the complete opposite of its dietetic regime with merciless hemologies of the fashionable school that collapsed, due to the rise of pathological anatomy and in particular diagnostics. Since that time, the present almost did not arise the template teachings about therapy; On the contrary, the latter more and more sought to individualize the patient and illness. With all that reproaches in a significant backwardness of therapy in comparison with other sectors of N. Medicine not well deemed (see Treatment). Not to mention the surgery, in which, thanks to the leisure, made possible operations in the cavities, until recently, those considered inaccessible, it is necessary, however, to point out that the effect of many drugs is studied in laboratories in the most thoroughly checked in clinics. Further, the huge merit of the therapy of the present century lies in the fact that it introduced a number of physical drugs, also studied in the highest degree in detail, such as, for example, hydrotherapy, gymnastics, massage and electricity, climatotherapy. In the same way, the diet of patients, the rules for their nutrition and regime received a very widespread development of the diet of sick, in many cases. At the disposal of doctors there are a number of highly studied specific tools, such as iron and manganese with small-class, chinin with a mixed fever, salicyl natter with rheumatism, mercury during syphilis, many anti-taponizing, anti-zelagic, drugs, and women; The case of antiseptics and disinfection, due to the abundance of anti-shirt and disinfecting medicinal substances, also put on a very wide leg. In the very recently, a thorough study of infectious diseases, the livelihoods of bacteria and the essence of immunity gave impetus to development in the widest sizes of serotherapy (see), i.e., the treatment of animal serum made immunity to various diseases by systematic administration in them weakened wiring of various bacteria or toxins produced by them. Less success acquired organotherapy several years ago (see), i.e. Introduction to the body of extracts of healthy organs of any animal, with the suffering of these organs in humans, or even direct feeding them (thyroid gland at zob, mucous membrane, kidney during brotherhood, etc.). In a number of merits of N. Medicine, it is impossible not to indicate that, thanks to the successes of general pathology, it again managed to bring the heterogeneous specialties among themselves, which even recently diverged one of the other. Thus, for example, it is currently proved that a number of nerve sufferings are deprived of their "essential" character, but are caused by diseases of various internal organs, are a consequence of syphilis, are caused by pregnancy or diseases of the genital organs. Many of the suffering of internal organs, joints are dependent on the transfer, due to the transfer of the blood flow of blood or lymph into those or other places. The close relationship of autoinoxication (self-defense) not quite oxidized metabolic products, due to insufficient activity of the intestines and various organs, causes the phenomena of Malokrovia, hysteria and even psychosis. On the other hand, the accumulation of numerous facts and observations, which made it difficult for one person the development and study of the subject, caused such crushing of the specialties, which was impossible to think before and think. So, for example, eye-minded, ears, throat diseases gradually stood out of surgery. Bacteriology, which is essentially a department of general pathology, has grown into an extensive specialty. Being one of the most young sciences, she, thanks to the genius of Pasteur, took one of the most outstanding places, both by the accuracy of its data and in the exclusive value of the facts found by it, completely modified our views on illnesses and giving innumerable results in preventing and treatment. Diseases. Paster himself and its numerous disciples, of whom Dyuklo, Mechnikov, Ru, et al., Dalited the basis of rational serotherapy. Another famous bacteriologist, Koh, and his disciples Bering, Kitosato, etc. Also enriched this science. Bering we owe anti-informitate serum. The Kitosato Japanese belongs to the destruction of the opening of anti-trust serum, etc. Skin diseases, acquiring more and more close relationships with internal and nervous suffering, alone alone in perfectly special science requiring the participation of many employees.

But not only the treatment of disease is an applied application of N. Medicine. Her successes were reflected in the broad state, public and individual development of an applied, warning disease of the problem - hygiene and prevention, huge successes of which would be completely incomprehensible if the study was founded exclusively on one rough empirical. Only knowledge of the norms of the structure and shipments of the body, the conditions of the contributing or violating their correct condition and the right activity, could develop that applied science, thanks to which mortality has decreased, the duration of average life has been reduced, the soreness has decreased and human performance has increased. Finally, only N. Medicine could give forensic medicine that the nature of the unconditional accuracy, which is so often different to its instructions in solving certain questions, such as, for example, the permissibility of criminals, the personnel of the person, kind, nature and the values \u200b\u200bof damage, etc.

Thus, from all the above, it is obvious that N. Medicine there is one for all sectors of its and practical physician, wanting in their activities with success and consciously treat their duties, should not only rely on their observations and experience, but follow and prosper His science in laboratories, clinics and other educational institutions, remembering that these successes facilitate him his task of treating patients and disease prevention. The science of medicine, as an integral part of natural science, can continue to progress, not losing sight of the further movement forward of other areas of knowledge with which it is closely related to the community of learning techniques and thinking. About the successes of medical sciences in Russia - see