Crimean War (1853 - 1856)

Cause: contradictions between European powers in the Middle East.

Occasion: a dispute between the Catholic and Orthodox clergy in Palestine about who will be the guardian of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher.

Countries participating in the war: Russia - revision of the regime, increasing influence.

Turkey - suppression of the national liberation movement, the return of the Crimea, the Black Sea coast.

England and France - to undermine the international authority of Russia, to weaken its position in the Middle East.

The war began on two fronts, the Balkan and the Transcaucasian.

Crimean War 1853-1856, also the Eastern War - a war between the Russian Empire and a coalition of the British, French, Ottoman Empires and the Sardinian Kingdom. The reasons for the war were in the contradictions between the European powers in the Middle East, in the struggle of European states for influence on the weakening and embraced by the national liberation movement, the Ottoman Empire. Nicholas I said that Turkey is a sick person and his legacy can and should be divided. In the upcoming conflict, the Russian emperor counted on the neutrality of Great Britain, which he promised after the defeat of Turkey new territorial acquisitions of Crete and Egypt, as well as the support of Austria, as gratitude for Russia's participation in suppressing the Hungarian revolution. However, Nikolai's calculations turned out to be wrong: England itself pushed Turkey to war, thus trying to weaken the position of Russia. Austria also did not want to strengthen Russia in the Balkans. The reason for the war was a dispute between the Catholic and Orthodox clergy in Palestine about who would be the guardian of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem and the temple in Bethlehem. At the same time, it was not about access to the holy places, since all pilgrims used them on equal terms. The dispute over the Holy Places cannot be called a far-fetched reason to unleash a war. Historians sometimes cite this controversy as one of the causes of the war, given the "deep religious mentality of the people of that time."

During the Crimean War, there are two stages : Stage I of the war: November 1853 - April 1854 ... Turkey was the enemy of Russia, and military operations took place on the Danube and Caucasian fronts. 1853 Russian troops entered the territory of Moldavia and Wallachia and military operations on land went sluggishly. In the Caucasus, the Turks were defeated at Kars. II stage of the war: April 1854 - February 1856 ... Concerned that Russia would completely defeat Turkey, England and France, in the person of Austria, they delivered an ultimatum to Russia. They demanded that Russia refuse to patronize the Orthodox population of the Ottoman Empire. Nikolai I could not accept such conditions. Turkey, France, England and Sardinia united against Russia. Results of the war : - On February 13 (25), 1856, the Paris Congress began, and on March 18 (30), a peace treaty was signed. - Russia returned the city of Kars with the fortress to the Ottomans, receiving in exchange the seized Sevastopol, Balaklava and other Crimean cities. - The Black Sea was declared neutral (that is, open for commercial and closed for military ships in peacetime), with the prohibition of Russia and the Ottoman Empire to have military fleets and arsenals there. - Navigation along the Danube was declared free, for which the Russian borders were moved away from the river and part of Russian Bessarabia with the mouth of the Danube was annexed to Moldavia. - Russia was deprived of the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia, granted to it by the Kuchuk-Kainardzhiysk peace of 1774, and the exclusive patronage of Russia over the Christian subjects of the Ottoman Empire. - Russia pledged not to build fortifications on the Aland Islands. During the war, the members of the anti-Russian coalition failed to achieve all their goals, but they managed to prevent the strengthening of Russia in the Balkans and deprive it of the Black Sea Fleet.

HEROES OF SEVASTOPOL:

Vice-Admiral Vladimir Alekseevich Kornilov The future famous Russian naval commander was born in the family estate of the Staritsk district of the Tver province in 1806. V.A.Kornilov organized the defense of Sevastopol, where his talent as a military leader was especially clearly manifested. Commanding a garrison of 7 thousand people, he set an example of a skillful organization of active defense. He is rightfully considered the founder of positional methods of warfare (continuous sorties of the defenders, night searches, mine warfare, close fire interaction between ships and fortress artillery). Mine warfare of fortress artillery.

Pavel Stepanovich Nakhimov Born in the village of Gorodok, Vyazemsky district, Smolensk province, into a noble family. During the Crimean War 185356, commanding a squadron of the Black Sea Fleet, in stormy weather, Nakhimov discovered and blocked the main forces of the Turkish fleet in Sinop, and, skillfully carrying out the entire operation, on 18 (30 November) defeated them in the Battle of Sinop in 1853. During the period of the Sevastopol defense of 185455. showed a strategic approach to the defense of the city. The town of the Vyazemsky district of the Smolensk province to a noble family of the Crimean War 185356 Sinop November 30 Sinop battle of 1853 In Sevastopol, Nakhimov defended, by appointment of the commander-in-chief, the southern part of the city, with amazing energy leading the defense and using his greatest and moral influence on benefactor ". P.S. Nakhimov's awards 1825 Order of St. Vladimir, 4th degree. For sailing on the frigate "Cruiser". 1825 Order of St. Vladimir 1827 Order of St. George, 4th degree. For the distinction shown in the Battle of Navarino. 1827 Order of St. George 1830 Order of St. Anna, 2nd degree. 1830 Order of St. Anna 1837 Order of St. Anna, 2nd degree with the imperial crown. For excellent diligent and zealous service. 1837 1842 Order of St. Vladimir, 3rd degree. For excellent diligent and zealous service. 1842 1846 insignia of blameless service for XXV years. 1846 1847 Order of St. Stanislav 1st degree. 1847 Order of St. Stanislav 1849 Order of St. Anne, 1st degree. 1849 1851 Order of St. Anne, 1st degree with the imperial crown. 1851 1853 Order of St. Vladimir, 2nd degree. For the successful transfer of the 13th Division. 1853 1853 Order of St. George, 2nd degree. For the victory at Sinope. 1853 1855 Order of the White Eagle. For the distinction in the defense of Sevastopol. 1855, the Order of the White Eagle, Nakhimov was awarded three orders at once: Russian George, English Bath, Greek Savior. Baths of the Savior

Daria Sevastopolskaya is the first nurse. Daria Mikhailova was born in the village of Klyuchischi near Kazan in the family of a sailor. In 1853, her father was killed during the Battle of Sinop. During the defense of Sevastopol, Daria Mikhailova not only provided medical care, but, having changed into men's clothes, participated in battles and went to reconnaissance. Not knowing her last name, everyone called her Dasha Sevastopolskaya. The only one from the lower class for special merits was awarded a gold medal on the Vladimir ribbon "For diligence" and 500 rubles. silver.

Pyotr Makarovich Koshka Born into the family of a serf peasant, given by a landowner to be a sailor. During the days of the Defense of Sevastopol, he fought on the battery of Lieutenant A.M. Perekomsky. He was distinguished by bold, proactive actions, courage and resourcefulness in battle, especially in reconnaissance and during the capture of prisoners. In January 1855 he was promoted to sailors of the 1st article, and then to quartermaster. He was awarded the Badge of Distinction of the Military Order of St. George and silver medals "For the Defense of Sevastopol in 18541855." and bronze "In memory of the Crimean War"

Russia lost the Crimean War, but the heroic defense of Sevastopol remained in the people's memory as a feat of tremendous moral strength. AI Herzen wrote that all the ugliness of the Crimean War, all the mediocrity of the command belongs to tsarism, and the heroic defense of Sevastopol belongs to the Russian people.

The Crimean War, or, as it is called in the West, the Eastern, was one of the most important and decisive events of the middle of the 19th century. At this time, the lands of the invading Ottoman Empire were in the center of the conflict between the European powers and Russia, and each of the warring parties wanted to expand their territories by annexing foreign lands.

The war of 1853-1856 was called the Crimean, since the most important and intense hostilities took place in the Crimea, although military clashes went far beyond the peninsula and covered large territories of the Balkans, the Caucasus, as well as the Far East and Kamchatka. At the same time, tsarist Russia had to fight not just with the Ottoman Empire, but with a coalition where Turkey was supported by Great Britain, France and the Kingdom of Sardinia.

Causes of the Crimean War

Each of the parties who took part in the military campaign had their own reasons and claims that prompted them to enter this conflict. But on the whole, they were united by one single goal - to take advantage of Turkey's weakness and establish themselves in the Balkans and the Middle East. It was these colonial interests that led to the outbreak of the Crimean War. But to achieve this goal, all countries followed different paths.

Russia was eager to destroy the Ottoman Empire, and its territories were mutually divided between the claiming countries. Russia would like to see Bulgaria, Moldova, Serbia and Wallachia under its protectorate. And at the same time, she was not against the fact that the territories of Egypt and the island of Crete would go to Great Britain. It was also important for Russia to establish control over the straits of the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus, connecting two seas: the Black and Mediterranean.

With the help of this war, Turkey hoped to suppress the national liberation movement that swept the Balkans, as well as to take away very important Russian territories Crimea and the Caucasus.

England and France did not want to strengthen the position of Russian tsarism in the international arena, and sought to preserve the Ottoman Empire, since they saw in her a constant threat to Russia. Having weakened the enemy, the European powers wanted to separate the territories of Finland, Poland, the Caucasus and Crimea from Russia.

The French emperor pursued his ambitious goals and dreamed of revenge in a new war with Russia. Thus, he wanted to take revenge on his enemy for the defeat in the military campaign of 1812.

If we carefully consider the mutual claims of the parties, then, in fact, the Crimean War was absolutely predatory and aggressive. It was not for nothing that the poet Fyodor Tyutchev described it as a war of cretins with scoundrels.

The course of hostilities

Several important events preceded the start of the Crimean War. In particular, it was the issue of control over the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Bethlehem, which was decided in favor of the Catholics. This finally convinced Nicholas I of the need to start military operations against Turkey. Therefore, in June 1853, Russian troops invaded the territory of Moldova.

The answer from the Turkish side was not long in coming: on October 12, 1853, the Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia.

The first period of the Crimean War: October 1853 - April 1854

By the beginning of hostilities, the Russian army numbered about a million people. But as it turned out, its armament was very outdated and significantly inferior to the equipment of Western European armies: smoothbore guns against rifled weapons, sailing fleet against ships with steam engines. But Russia hoped that it would have to fight with an approximately equal Turkish army, as it happened at the very beginning of the war, and could not assume that it would be opposed by the forces of a united coalition of European countries.

During this period, hostilities were conducted with varying degrees of success. And the most important battle of the first Russian-Turkish period of the war was the Battle of Sinop, which took place on November 18, 1853. The Russian flotilla under the command of Vice Admiral Nakhimov, heading for the Turkish coast, found large enemy naval forces in the Sinop Bay. The commander decided to attack the Turkish fleet. The Russian squadron had an undeniable advantage - 76 guns firing explosive shells. This is what decided the outcome of the 4-hour battle - the Turkish squadron was completely destroyed, and the commander Osman Pasha was taken prisoner.

Second period of the Crimean War: April 1854 - February 1856

The victory of the Russian army in the Battle of Sinop greatly worried England and France. And in March 1854, these powers, together with Turkey, formed a coalition to fight the common enemy - the Russian Empire. Now a powerful military force fought against her, several times superior to her army.

With the beginning of the second stage of the Crimean campaign, the territory of military operations expanded significantly and covered the Caucasus, the Balkans, the Baltic, the Far East and Kamchatka. But the main task of the coalition was the intervention in Crimea and the seizure of Sevastopol.

In the fall of 1854, the combined 60,000th corps of the coalition forces landed in the Crimea near Evpatoria. And the first battle on the Alma River was lost by the Russian army, so it was forced to retreat to Bakhchisarai. The garrison of Sevastopol began to prepare for the defense and defense of the city. The glorious admirals Nakhimov, Kornilov and Istomin stood at the head of the valiant defenders. Sevastopol was turned into an impregnable fortress, which was protected by 8 bastions on land, and the entrance to the bay was blocked with the help of sunken ships.

The heroic defense of Sevastopol lasted 349 days, and only in September 1855 the enemy captured the Malakhov Kurgan and occupied the entire southern part of the city. The Russian garrison moved to the northern part, but Sevastopol never surrendered.

Results of the Crimean War

The military actions of 1855 weakened both the allied coalition and Russia. Therefore, the continuation of the war was out of the question. And in March 1856, the opponents agreed to sign a peace treaty.

According to the Paris Treaty, Russia, like the Ottoman Empire, was prohibited from having a navy, fortresses and arsenals on the Black Sea, which meant that the country's southern borders were in danger.

As a result of the war, Russia lost a small part of its territories in Bessarabia and the Danube estuary, but lost its influence in the Balkans.

The defeat of Russia in the Crimean War was inevitable. Why?
“This is a war of cretins with scoundrels,” F.I. Tyutchev.
Too harsh? Maybe. But if we take into account the fact that others perished for the sake of the ambitions of some, then Tyutchev's statement will be accurate.

Crimean War (1853-1856) also sometimes called Eastern War - This is a war between the Russian Empire and the coalition of the British, French, Ottoman empires and the Sardinian kingdom. Fighting unfolded in the Caucasus, in the Danube principalities, in the Baltic, Black, White and Barents Seas, as well as in Kamchatka. But the fighting reached the greatest tension in the Crimea, therefore the war was called Crimean.

I. Aivazovsky "Review of the Black Sea Fleet in 1849"

Causes of the war

Each side that took part in the war had its own claims and reasons for the military conflict.

Russian empire: sought to revise the regime of the Black Sea straits; increased influence on the Balkan Peninsula.

The painting by I. Aivazovsky depicts participants in the upcoming war:

Nicholas I peers intently at the order of the ships. He is being watched by the fleet commander, stocky admiral M.P. Lazarev and his pupils Kornilov (chief of staff of the fleet, behind Lazarev's right shoulder), Nakhimov (behind the left shoulder) and Istomin (far right).

Ottoman Empire: wanted the suppression of the national liberation movement in the Balkans; return of Crimea and the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus.

England, France: hoped undermine the international authority of Russia, weaken its position in the Middle East; to tear away from Russia the territories of Poland, Crimea, the Caucasus, Finland; to strengthen its position in the Middle East, using it as a sales market.

By the middle of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was in a state of decline, in addition, the struggle of the Orthodox peoples continued for liberation from the Ottoman yoke.

These factors led to the emergence of the Russian Emperor Nicholas I in the early 1850s of thoughts on the separation of the Balkan possessions of the Ottoman Empire, inhabited by Orthodox peoples, which was opposed by Great Britain and Austria. Great Britain, in addition, sought to oust Russia from the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus and from the Transcaucasus. The emperor of France Napoleon III, although he did not share the plans of the British to weaken Russia, considering them excessive, supported the war with Russia as revenge for 1812 and as a means of strengthening personal power.

Russia and France had a diplomatic conflict over control of the Church of the Nativity of Christ in Bethlehem, Russia, in order to put pressure on Turkey, occupied Moldova and Wallachia, which were under Russian protectorate under the terms of the Adrianople Peace Treaty. The refusal of the Russian Emperor Nicholas I to withdraw his troops led to the declaration of war on Russia on October 4 (16), 1853 by Turkey, followed by Great Britain and France.

The course of hostilities

The first stage of the war (November 1853 - April 1854) - these are Russian-Turkish military operations.

Nicholas I took an uncompromising position, hoping for the might of the army and the support of some European states (England, Austria, etc.). But he miscalculated. The Russian army numbered over 1 million people. However, as it turned out during the war, it was imperfect, primarily in technical terms. Its armament (smoothbore guns) was inferior to the rifled weapons of the Western European armies.

Artillery is also outdated. The Russian fleet was predominantly sailing, while the European naval forces were dominated by ships with steam engines. There were no well-established communications. This did not allow to provide the place of hostilities with a sufficient amount of ammunition and food, human replenishment. The Russian army could successfully fight a similar Turkish army, but could not resist the united forces of Europe.

The Russian-Turkish war was fought with varying success from November 1853 to April 1854. The main event of the first stage was the Battle of Sinop (November 1853). Admiral P.S. Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet in the Sinop Bay and suppressed the coastal batteries.

As a result of the Battle of Sinop, the Russian Black Sea Fleet under the command of Admiral Nakhimov defeated the Turkish squadron. The Turkish fleet was defeated within a few hours.

During the four-hour battle in Sinop Bay(the naval base of Turkey) the enemy lost a dozen ships and over 3 thousand people were killed, all coastal fortifications were destroyed. Only 20-gun fast steamer "Taif" with an English adviser on board, he was able to escape from the bay. The commander of the Turkish fleet was captured. Losses of Nakhimov's squadron were 37 killed and 216 wounded. Some ships left the battle with severe damage, but one was not sunk ... The battle of Sinop is inscribed in golden letters in the history of the Russian fleet.

I. Aivazovsky "Sinop battle"

This activated England and France. They declared war on Russia. An Anglo-French squadron appeared in the Baltic Sea, attacking Kronstadt and Sveaborg. British ships entered the White Sea and bombarded the Solovetsky Monastery. A military demonstration was also held in Kamchatka.

Second stage of the war (April 1854 - February 1856) - the Anglo-French intervention in the Crimea, the appearance of warships of the Western powers in the Baltic and White Seas and in Kamchatka.

The main goal of the joint Anglo-French command was the capture of the Crimea and Sevastopol, the naval base of Russia. On September 2, 1854, the allies began to land an expeditionary corps in the region of Evpatoria. The battle on the r. Alma in September 1854 Russian troops lost. By order of the commander A.S. Menshikov, they passed through Sevastopol and went to Bakhchisarai. At the same time, the garrison of Sevastopol, reinforced by sailors from the Black Sea Fleet, was actively preparing for the defense. It was headed by V.A. Kornilov and P.S. Nakhimov.

After the battle on the river. Alma the enemy laid siege to Sevastopol. Sevastopol was a first-class naval base, impregnable from the sea. Before the entrance to the roadstead - on the peninsulas and capes - there were powerful forts. The Russian fleet could not resist the enemy, so some of the ships were sunk in front of the entrance to the Sevastopol Bay, which further strengthened the city from the sea. More than 20 thousand sailors went ashore and joined the ranks along with the soldiers. Two thousand ship guns were also transported here. Eight bastions and many other fortifications were built around the city. They used earth, boards, household utensils - everything that could hold the bullets.

But for the work there were not enough ordinary shovels and picks. Theft flourished in the army. During the war years, this turned into a disaster. In this regard, a famous episode is recalled. Nicholas I, outraged by all kinds of abuses and embezzlement that were revealed almost everywhere, in a conversation with the heir to the throne (the future emperor Alexander II) shared his discovery and shocked him: "It seems that only two people do not steal in all of Russia - you and me."

Defense of Sevastopol

Defense led by admirals Kornilova V.A., Nakhimova P.S. and Istomin V.I. lasted 349 days by the forces of a 30-thousandth garrison and naval crews. During this period, the city was subjected to five massive bombings, as a result of which part of the city, the Ship Side, was practically destroyed.

On October 5, 1854, the first bombardment of the city began. The army and the navy took part in it. 120 guns fired on the city from the land, and 1340 ship guns from the sea side. During the shelling, over 50 thousand shells were fired at the city. This fiery tornado was supposed to destroy the fortifications and suppress the will of their defenders to resist. However, the Russians responded with accurate fire with 268 guns. The artillery duel lasted five hours. Despite the huge superiority in artillery, the allied fleet was severely damaged (8 ships were sent for repair) and was forced to retreat. After that, the Allies abandoned the use of the fleet in bombing the city. The city's fortifications were not seriously damaged. The decisive and skillful rebuff of the Russians came as a complete surprise to the allied command, which expected to take the city with little blood. The defenders of the city could celebrate a very important not only military, but also a moral victory. Their joy was overshadowed by the death during the shelling of Vice Admiral Kornilov. The defense of the city was headed by Nakhimov, who was promoted to admiral on March 27, 1855 for his distinction in the defense of Sevastopol. Roubaud. Panorama of the defense of Sevastopol (detail)

A. Roubaud. Panorama of the defense of Sevastopol (detail)

In July 1855, Admiral Nakhimov was mortally wounded. The attempts of the Russian army under the command of Prince Menshikov A.S. pull off the forces of the besiegers ended in failure (the battle under Inkerman, Evpatoria and Chernaya Rechka). The actions of the field army in the Crimea did little to help the heroic defenders of Sevastopol. Around the city, the enemy's ring was gradually shrinking. Russian troops were forced to leave the city. The enemy offensive ended there. The subsequent hostilities in Crimea, as well as in other regions of the country, were not decisive for the allies. Things were somewhat better in the Caucasus, where Russian troops not only stopped the Turkish offensive, but also occupied the fortress Kars... During the Crimean War, the forces of both sides were undermined. But the selfless courage of the Sevastopol people could not compensate for the shortcomings in armament and support.

On August 27, 1855, French troops seized the southern part of the city by storm and captured the hill dominating over the city - Malakhov Kurgan.

The loss of Malakhov's mound decided the fate of Sevastopol. On this day, the defenders of the city lost about 13 thousand people, or more than a quarter of the entire garrison. In the evening of August 27, 1855, by order of General M.D. Gorchakov, the Sevastopol residents left the southern part of the city and crossed the bridge to the northern one. The battles for Sevastopol are over. The allies did not succeed in his surrender. The Russian armed forces in Crimea survived and were ready for further battles. They numbered 115 thousand people. against 150 thousand people. Anglo-French-Sardinians. The defense of Sevastopol was the culmination of the Crimean War.

F. Roubaud. Panorama of the defense of Sevastopol (fragment "The battle for the Gervais battery")

Military operations in the Caucasus

In the Caucasian theater, hostilities developed more successfully for Russia. Turkey invaded Transcaucasia, but suffered a major defeat, after which Russian troops began to operate on its territory. In November 1855, the Turkish fortress Kare fell.

The extreme exhaustion of the forces of the allies in the Crimea and the Russian successes in the Caucasus led to the cessation of hostilities. Negotiations between the parties began.

Paris world

At the end of March 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty was signed. Russia has not suffered significant territorial losses. Only the southern part of Bessarabia was torn away from it. However, she lost the right of patronage to the Danube principalities and Serbia. The most difficult and humiliating condition was the so-called "neutralization" of the Black Sea. Russia was banned from having naval forces, military arsenals and fortresses on the Black Sea. This dealt a significant blow to the security of the southern borders. The role of Russia in the Balkans and the Middle East was reduced to naught: Serbia, Moldavia and Wallachia passed under the supreme power of the Ottoman Sultan.

The defeat in the Crimean War had a significant impact on the alignment of international forces and on the internal situation in Russia. The war, on the one hand, exposed its weakness, but on the other, it demonstrated the heroism and unshakable spirit of the Russian people. The defeat summed up the sad outcome of Nikolaev's rule, shook the entire Russian public and made the government come to grips with reforming the state.

Heroes of the Crimean War

Kornilov Vladimir Alekseevich

K. Bryullov "Portrait of Kornilov aboard the brig" Themistocles "

Kornilov Vladimir Alekseevich (1806 - October 17, 1854, Sevastopol), Russian vice-admiral. From 1849 he was chief of staff, and from 1851 he was actually the commander of the Black Sea Fleet. During the Crimean War, one of the leaders of the heroic defense of Sevastopol. Mortally wounded at the Malakhov Kurgan.

He was born on February 1, 1806 in the family estate of Ivanovo, Tver province. His father was a naval officer. Following in the footsteps of his father, Kornilov Jr. entered the Naval Cadet Corps in 1821, graduated two years later, becoming a warrant officer. Richly gifted by nature, an ardent and enthusiastic young man, he was burdened by coastal combat service in the Guards naval crew. He could not stand the routine of parades and drills of the end of the reign of Alexander I and was expelled from the fleet "for lack of vigor for the front." In 1827, at the request of his father, he was allowed to return to the navy. Kornilov was assigned to the newly built and arrived from Arkhangelsk ship M. Lazarev "Azov", and from that time began his real naval service.

Kornilov took part in the famous Navarino battle against the Turkish-Egyptian fleet. In this battle (October 8, 1827) the crew of the "Azov", carrying the flagship flag, showed the highest valor and was the first of the ships of the Russian fleet to deserve the stern St. George flag. Lieutenant Nakhimov and midshipman Istomin fought next to Kornilov.

On October 20, 1853, Russia declared a state of war with Turkey. On the same day, Admiral Menshikov, appointed commander-in-chief of the sea and land forces in the Crimea, sent Kornilov with a detachment of ships to reconnaissance of the enemy with permission to "take and destroy Turkish warships wherever they met." Having reached the Bosphorus Strait and not finding the enemy, Kornilov sent two ships to reinforce Nakhimov's squadron cruising along the Anatolian coast, the rest he sent to Sevastopol, he himself switched to the steam frigate Vladimir and stayed at the Bosphorus. The next day, November 5, "Vladimir" discovered an armed Turkish ship "Pervaz-Bahri" and entered into battle with it. This was the first battle of steam ships in the history of naval art, and the crew of the "Vladimir" headed by Lieutenant-Commander G. Butakov won a convincing victory in it. The Turkish ship was captured and taken in tow to Sevastopol, where after repairs it entered the Black Sea Fleet under the name "Kornilov".

At the council of flagships and commanders, which decided the fate of the Black Sea Fleet, Kornilov called for the ships to go out to sea in order to fight the enemy for the last time. However, by a majority vote of the council members, it was decided to flood the fleet, excluding steam frigates, in the Sevastopol Bay and thereby block the enemy's breakthrough to the city from the sea. On September II, 1854, the flooding of the sailing fleet began. All the guns and personnel of the lost ships were sent by the chief of the city's defense to the bastions.
On the eve of the siege of Sevastopol, Kornilov said: "Let them first tell the troops the word of God, and then I will give them the word of the king." And around the city was done procession with banners, icons, chants and prayers. Only after that did the famous Kornilov call sound: "The sea is behind us, the enemy is ahead, remember: do not believe in retreat!"
On September 13, the city was declared a state of siege, and Kornilov attracted the population of Sevastopol to the construction of fortifications. The garrisons of the southern and northern sides were increased, from where the main attacks of the enemy were expected. On October 5, the enemy launched the first massive bombardment of the city from land and sea. On this day, while bypassing the defensive formations, V.A. Kornilov was mortally wounded in the head at the Malakhov Kurgan. “Defend Sevastopol,” were his last words. Nicholas I, in his letter to the widow of Kornilov, pointed out: "Russia will not forget these words, and your children will pass on a name that is venerable in the history of the Russian fleet."
After the death of Kornilov, a will was found in his casket, addressed to his wife and children. "I will bequeath to the children," the father wrote, "to the boys, having chosen the service of the sovereign once, not to change it, but to make every effort to make it useful to society ... Daughters follow their mothers in everything." Vladimir Alekseevich was buried in the crypt of the Naval Cathedral of St. Vladimir next to his teacher, Admiral Lazarev. Soon Nakhimov and Istomin will take their place next to them.

Pavel Stepanovich Nakhimov

Pavel Stepanovich Nakhimov was born on June 23, 1802 in the Gorodok estate of the Smolensk province in the family of a nobleman, retired major Stepan Mikhailovich Nakhimov. Of the eleven children, five were boys, and all of them became military sailors; at the same time, Pavel's younger brother, Sergei, finished his service as vice admiral, director of the Naval Cadet Corps, in which all five brothers studied in their youth. But Paul surpassed everyone with his naval glory.

He graduated from the Marine Corps, and was among the best midshipmen in the Phoenix brig, who took part in the sea voyage to the shores of Sweden and Denmark. After graduating from the corps with the rank of midshipman, he was assigned to the 2nd naval crew of the Petersburg port.

Tirelessly training the Navarin crew and polishing his combat skills, Nakhimov skillfully led the ship during the period of Lazarev's squadron operations against the blockade of the Dardanelles in the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829. For his excellent service, he was awarded the Order of St. Anna, 2nd degree. When in May 1830 the squadron returned to Kronstadt, Rear Admiral Lazarev wrote down in the certification of the Navarin commander: "An excellent and completely knowledgeable naval captain."

In 1832, Pavel Stepanovich was appointed commander of the Pallada frigate built at the Okhten shipyard. F. Bellingshausen he sailed in the Baltic. In 1834, at the request of Lazarev, then the chief commander of the Black Sea Fleet, Nakhimov was transferred to Sevastopol. He was appointed commander of the battleship Silistria, and eleven years of his further service were spent on this battleship. Giving all his strength to work with the crew, instilling in his subordinates a love of naval affairs, Pavel Stepanovich made the Silistria an exemplary ship, and made his name popular in the Black Sea Fleet. In the first place, he put the naval training of the crew, was strict and demanding of his subordinates, but he had a kind heart, open to sympathy and manifestations of naval brotherhood. Lazarev often kept his flag on the Silistria, setting the battleship as an example to the entire fleet.

Nakhimov's military talents and naval skills were most clearly manifested during the Crimean War of 1853-1856. Even on the eve of the collision of Russia with the Anglo-French-Turkish coalition, the first squadron of the Black Sea Fleet under his command was vigilantly cruising between Sevastopol and the Bosphorus. In October 1853, Russia declared war on Turkey, and the squadron commander emphasized in his order: “In the event of a meeting with an enemy superior to us in strength, I will attack him, being absolutely sure that each of us will do his job. In early November, Nakhimov learned that the Turkish squadron under the command of Osman Pasha, heading for the shores of the Caucasus, left the Bosphorus and, due to a storm, entered the Sinop Bay. The commander of the Russian squadron had 8 ships and 720 guns at the disposal of the commander of the Russian squadron, while Osman Pasha had 16 ships with 510 guns under the protection of coastal batteries. Without becoming to wait for the steam frigates, which the vice admiral Kornilov led the Russian squadron to reinforce, Nakhimov decided to attack the enemy, relying primarily on the fighting and moral qualities of the Russian sailors.

For the victory at Sinop Nicholas I honored Vice-Admiral Nakhimov with the Order of St. George, 2nd degree, writing in a personal rescript: "With the extermination of the Turkish squadron, you decorated the chronicle of the Russian fleet with a new victory, which will forever remain memorable in maritime history." Evaluating the Battle of Sinop, Vice Admiral Kornilov wrote: “The battle is glorious, higher than Chesma and Navarin ... Hurray, Nakhimov! Lazarev is happy with his student! "

Convinced that Turkey was not in a position to wage a successful fight against Russia, England and France brought their fleet into the Black Sea. Commander-in-chief A.S. Menshikov did not dare to prevent this, and the further course of events led to the epic of the Sevastopol defense of 1854-1855. In September 1854, Nakhimov had to agree with the decision of the council of flagships and commanders on the sinking of the Black Sea squadron in the Sevastopol Bay in order to make it difficult for the Anglo-French-Turkish fleet to enter it. Moving from sea to land, Nakhimov voluntarily became subordinate to Kornilov, who led the defense of Sevastopol. Seniority in age and superiority in military merit did not prevent Nakhimov, who recognized the mind and character of Kornilov, from maintaining good relations with him, based on a mutual ardent desire to defend the southern stronghold of Russia.

In the spring of 1855, the second and third assaults of Sevastopol were heroically repulsed. In March, Nicholas I granted Nakhimov for military distinction with the rank of admiral. In May, the valiant naval commander was awarded a life lease, but Pavel Stepanovich was annoyed: “What do I need it for? It would be better if they sent me bombs. "

On June 6, the enemy began active assault actions for the fourth time through massive bombing and attacks. On June 28, on the eve of the day of Saints Peter and Paul, Nakhimov once again went to the front bastions to support and inspire the defenders of the city. On the Malakhov Kurgan, he visited the bastion where Kornilov died, despite warnings about strong rifle fire, he decided to go up to the parapet banquet, and then an aimed enemy bullet hit him in the temple. Without regaining consciousness, Pavel Stepanovich died two days later.

Admiral Nakhimov was buried in Sevastopol in the Cathedral of St. Vladimir, next to the graves of Lazarev, Kornilov and Istomin. With a large crowd of people, admirals and generals carried his coffin, seventeen in a row stood an honor guard from the army battalions and all the crews of the Black Sea Fleet, drumming and a solemn prayer sounded, a cannon salute thundered. In the coffin of Pavel Stepanovich, two admiral's flags were overshadowed and the third, priceless - the stern flag of the battleship "Empress Maria", the flagship of the Sinop victory, torn by cannonballs.

Nikolay Ivanovich Pirogov

The famous doctor, surgeon, participant in the defense of Sevastopol in 1855. NI Pirogov's contribution to medicine and science is invaluable. He created anatomical atlases of exemplary precision. N.I. Pirogov was the first to come up with the idea of ​​plastic surgery, put forward the idea of ​​bone grafting, applied anesthesia in military field surgery, applied a plaster cast for the first time in the field, suggested the existence of pathogenic micro-organisms that cause suppuration of wounds. Already at that time, N.I. Pirogov called for abandoning early amputations for gunshot wounds of the limbs with bone injuries. The mask for ether anesthesia designed by him is still used in medicine. Pirogov was one of the founders of the sisters of mercy service. All his discoveries and achievements have saved the lives of thousands of people. He did not refuse to help anyone and devoted his whole life to unlimited service to people.

Dasha Alexandrova (Sevastopol)

She was sixteen and a half when the Crimean War began. She lost her mother early, and her father, a sailor, defended Sevastopol. Dasha ran to the port every day, trying to find out something about her father. In the chaos that reigned around, it turned out to be impossible. Desperate, Dasha decided that she should try at least to help the fighters in some way - and together with everyone else, her father. She exchanged her cow - the only thing she had of value - for a decrepit horse and cart, got vinegar and old rags, and, along with other women, joined the wagon train. Other women cooked and washed for the soldiers. And Dasha turned her cart into a dressing station.

When the situation of the troops worsened, many women left the train and Sevastopol, went north, to safe areas. Dasha stayed. She found an old abandoned house, cleaned it out and turned it into a hospital. Then she unhitched her horse from the cart, and spent whole days walking with it to the front line and back, taking out two wounded for each "walk".

In November 1953, in the battle of Sinop, the sailor Lavrenty Mikhailov, her father, was killed. Dasha found out about this much later ...

A rumor about a girl who takes out the wounded from the battlefield and provides them with medical assistance spread throughout the belligerent Crimea. And soon Dasha had associates. True, these girls did not risk going to the front line, like Dasha, but they completely took upon themselves dressing and caring for the wounded.

And then Dasha was found by Pirogov, who confused the girl with expressions of his sincere delight and admiration for her feat.

Dasha Mikhailova and her assistants have joined the "Cross Exaltation" We studied the professional treatment of wounds.

The younger sons of the emperor, Nikolai and Mikhail, came to Crimea "to raise the spirit of the Russian army". They also wrote to their father that in the fighting Sevastopol "a girl named Daria is taking care of the wounded and sick, with exemplary diligence." Nicholas I ordered her to welcome gold medal on the Vladimir ribbon with the inscription "For diligence" and 500 silver rubles. According to the status, the gold medal "For diligence" was awarded to those who already had three medals - silver. So we can assume that the Emperor highly appreciated the feat of Dasha.

The exact date of death and the resting place of the ashes of Daria Lavrentievna Mikhailova have not yet been discovered by researchers.

Reasons for Russia's defeat

• Economic backwardness of Russia;
• Russia's political isolation;
• Lack of a steam fleet in Russia;
• Poor supply of the army;
• Lack of railways.

For three years Russia lost 500 thousand people in killed, wounded and prisoners. The allies also suffered great damage: about 250 thousand killed, wounded and died from diseases. As a result of the war, Russia ceded its positions in the Middle East to France and England. Its prestige in the international arena was badly undermined... On March 13, 1856, a peace treaty was signed in Paris, under the terms of which the Black Sea was declared neutral, the Russian fleet was reduced to minimum and fortifications were destroyed... Turkey has also made similar demands. In addition, Russia lost the mouth of the Danube and the southern part of Bessarabia, was supposed to return the Kars fortress, and also lost the right to patronize Serbia, Moldavia and Wallachia.

CRIMEAN WAR 1853-1856

Causes of the war and the balance of power. Russia, the Ottoman Empire, England, France and Sardinia took part in the Crimean War. Each of them had their own calculations in this military conflict in the Middle East.

For Russia, the regime of the Black Sea straits was of paramount importance. In the 30-40s of the XIX century. Russian diplomacy waged an intense struggle for the most favorable conditions in resolving this issue. In 1833, the Unkiar-Iskelessi treaty was concluded with Turkey. According to it, Russia received the right to freely send its warships through the straits. In the 40s of the XIX century. the situation has changed. On the basis of a number of agreements with European states, the straits were closed to all navies. This had a heavy impact on the Russian fleet. He found himself trapped in the Black Sea. Russia, relying on its military might, sought to re-solve the problem of the straits, to strengthen its positions in the Middle East and the Balkans.

The Ottoman Empire wanted to return the territories lost as a result of the Russian-Turkish wars of the late 18th - first half of the 19th century.

England and France hoped to crush Russia as a great power, to deprive her of influence in the Middle East and the Balkan Peninsula.

The pan-European conflict in the Middle East began in 1850, when disputes broke out between the Orthodox and Catholic clergy in Palestine over who would own the Holy Places in Jerusalem and Bethlehem. The Orthodox Church was supported by Russia, and the Catholic Church was supported by France. The dispute between the clergy grew into a confrontation between these two European states. The Ottoman Empire, which included Palestine, sided with France. This caused a sharp discontent in Russia and personally Emperor Nicholas I. A special representative of the tsar, Prince A.S. was sent to Constantinople. Menshikov. He was entrusted with obtaining privileges for the Russian Orthodox Church in Palestine and patronage rights for Orthodox citizens of Turkey. Failure of the mission of A.S. Menshikov was a foregone conclusion. The Sultan was not going to yield to the pressure of Russia, and the defiant, disrespectful behavior of her envoy only exacerbated the conflict situation. Thus, it would seem that it was a private, but important for that time, given the religious feelings of people, the dispute about the Holy Places became the reason for the emergence of the Russian-Turkish, and subsequently the all-European war.

Nicholas I took an uncompromising position, hoping for the might of the army and the support of some European states (England, Austria, etc.). But he miscalculated. The Russian army numbered over 1 million people. However, as it turned out during the war, it was imperfect, primarily in technical terms. Its armament (smoothbore guns) was inferior to the rifled weapons of the Western European armies. Artillery is also outdated. The Russian fleet was predominantly sailing, while the European naval forces were dominated by ships with steam engines. There were no well-established communications. This did not allow to provide the place of hostilities with a sufficient amount of ammunition and food, human replenishment. The Russian army could successfully fight a similar Turkish army, but could not resist the united forces of Europe.

The course of hostilities. To put pressure on Turkey in 1853, Russian troops were sent to Moldova and Wallachia. In response, the Turkish sultan declared war on Russia in October 1853. He was supported by England and France. Austria has adopted a position of "armed neutrality". Russia found itself in complete political isolation.

The history of the Crimean War is divided into two stages. The first - the Russian-Turkish campaign proper - was conducted with varying success from November 1853 to April 1854. On the second (April 1854 - February 1856), Russia was forced to fight against a coalition of European states.

The main event of the first stage is the Battle of Sinop (November 1853). Admiral P.S. Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet in the Sinop Bay and suppressed the coastal batteries. This activated England and France. They declared war on Russia. An Anglo-French squadron appeared in the Baltic Sea, attacking Kronstadt and Sveaborg. British ships entered the White Sea and bombarded the Solovetsky Monastery. A military demonstration was also held in Kamchatka.

The main goal of the joint Anglo-French command was the capture of the Crimea and Sevastopol, the naval base of Russia. On September 2, 1854, the allies began to land an expeditionary corps in the region of Evpatoria. The battle on the r. Alma in September 1854 Russian troops lost. By order of the commander, A.S. Menshikov, they passed through Sevastopol and went to Bakhchisarai. At the same time, the garrison of Sevastopol, reinforced by sailors from the Black Sea Fleet, was actively preparing for the defense. It was headed by V.A. Kornilov and P.S. Nakhimov.

In October 1854, the defense of Sevastopol began. The garrison of the fortress showed unprecedented heroism. In Sevastopol, admirals V.A. Kornilov, P.S. Nakhimov, V.I. Istomin, military engineer E.I. Totleben, lieutenant-general of artillery S.A. Khrulev, many sailors and soldiers: I. Shevchenko, F. Samolatov, P. Koshka and others.

The main part of the Russian army undertook diversionary operations: the battle of Inkerman (November 1854), the offensive on Evpatoria (February 1855), the battle on the Black River (August 1855). These military actions did not help the Sevastopol residents. In August 1855, the last assault on Sevastopol began. After the fall of the Malakhov Kurgan, the continuation of the defense was difficult. Most of Sevastopol was occupied by the allied forces, however, finding there some ruins, they returned to their positions.

In the Caucasian theater, hostilities developed more successfully for Russia. Turkey invaded Transcaucasia, but suffered a major defeat, after which Russian troops began to operate on its territory. In November 1855, the Turkish fortress Kare fell.

The extreme exhaustion of the forces of the allies in the Crimea and the Russian successes in the Caucasus led to the cessation of hostilities. Negotiations between the parties began.

The Parisian world. At the end of March 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty was signed. Russia has not suffered significant territorial losses. Only the southern part of Bessarabia was torn away from it. However, she lost the right of patronage to the Danube principalities and Serbia. The most difficult and humiliating condition was the so-called "neutralization" of the Black Sea. Russia was banned from having naval forces, military arsenals and fortresses on the Black Sea. This dealt a significant blow to the security of the southern borders. The role of Russia in the Balkans and the Middle East was reduced to nothing.

The defeat in the Crimean War had a significant impact on the alignment of international forces and on the internal situation in Russia. The war, on the one hand, exposed its weakness, but on the other, it demonstrated the heroism and unshakable spirit of the Russian people. The defeat summed up the sad outcome of Nikolaev's rule, shook the entire Russian public and made the government come to grips with reforming the state.

What you need to know on this topic:

Socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the XIX century. Social structure of the population.

Agricultural development.

The development of Russian industry in the first half of the XIX century. Formation of capitalist relations. Industrial revolution: essence, preconditions, chronology.

Development of water and highways communications. Start of railway construction.

Aggravation of socio-political contradictions in the country. Palace coup 1801 and the accession to the throne of Alexander I. "The days of the Alexandrovs are a wonderful beginning."

The peasant question. The decree "on free farmers". Government measures in the field of education. State activity of M.M. Speransky and his plan of state transformations. Creation State Council.

Russia's participation in anti-French coalitions. Tilsit Peace Treaty.

Patriotic War of 1812. International relations on the eve of the war. Causes and the beginning of the war. The balance of forces and military plans of the parties. M.B. Barclay de Tolly. P.I.Bagration. M.I.Kutuzov. The stages of the war. Results and significance of the war.

Foreign campaigns 1813-1814 Congress of Vienna and its decisions. Sacred union.

The internal situation of the country in 1815-1825 Strengthening of conservative sentiments in Russian society. A.A. Arakcheev and Arakcheevshchina. Military settlements.

Foreign policy of tsarism in the first quarter of the 19th century

The first secret organizations of the Decembrists were the Union of Salvation and the Union of Prosperity. Northern and Southern Society. The main program documents of the Decembrists are "Russian Truth" by P.I. Pestel and "Constitution" by N.M. Muraviev. Death of Alexander I. Interregnum. Uprising on December 14, 1825 in St. Petersburg. The uprising of the Chernigov regiment. Investigation and trial of the Decembrists. The meaning of the Decembrist uprising.

The beginning of the reign of Nicholas I. Strengthening the autocratic power. Further centralization, bureaucratization of the state system in Russia. Strengthening repressive measures. Creation of the III branch. Censorship charter. The era of censorship terror.

Codification. M.M.Speransky. Reform of the state peasants. P.D. Kiselev. The decree "on obliged peasants."

Polish uprising of 1830-1831

The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the second quarter of the XIX century.

Eastern question. Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829 The problem of straits in the foreign policy of Russia in the 30-40s of the XIX century.

Russia and the revolutions of 1830 and 1848 in Europe.

Crimean War. International relations on the eve of the war. Causes of the war. The course of hostilities. The defeat of Russia in the war. The Paris Peace of 1856. International and internal consequences of the war.

Accession of the Caucasus to Russia.

Formation of the state (imamate) in the North Caucasus. Muridism. Shamil. Caucasian War. The significance of the annexation of the Caucasus to Russia.

Social thought and social movement in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century.

Formation of government ideology. The theory of the official nationality. Circles of the late 20s - early 30s of the XIX century.

N.V. Stankevich's circle and German idealistic philosophy. A.I. Herzen's circle and utopian socialism. "Philosophical letter" P.Ya. Chaadaev. Westerners. Moderate. Radicals. Slavophiles. MV Butashevich-Petrashevsky and his circle. The theory of "Russian socialism" A.I. Herzen.

Socio-economic and political prerequisites for the bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s of the XIX century.

Peasant reform. Preparation of the reform. "Regulations" February 19, 1861 Personal liberation of the peasants. Nadela. Ransom. Obligations of the peasants. Temporarily liable state.

Zemskaya, judicial, urban reforms. Financial reforms. Reforms in the field of education. Censorship rules. Military reforms. The significance of bourgeois reforms.

Socio-economic development of Russia in the second half of the XIX century. Social structure of the population.

Industry development. Industrial revolution: essence, preconditions, chronology. The main stages in the development of capitalism in industry.

The development of capitalism in agriculture. Rural community in post-reform Russia. Agrarian crisis of the 80-90s of the XIX century.

Social movement in Russia in the 50-60s of the XIX century.

Social movement in Russia in the 70-90s of the XIX century.

The revolutionary populist movement of the 70s - early 80s of the XIX century.

"Land and Freedom" of the 70s of the XIX century. "Narodnaya Volya" and "Black Redistribution". The assassination of Alexander II on March 1, 1881. The collapse of "Narodnaya Volya".

Labor movement in the second half of the 19th century. Strike struggle. The first workers' organizations. The emergence of a work question. Factory legislation.

Liberal populism of the 80-90s of the XIX century. The spread of the ideas of Marxism in Russia. Group "Emancipation of Labor" (1883-1903). The emergence of Russian social democracy. Marxist circles of the 80s of the XIX century.

Petersburg "Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class". V.I.Ulyanov. "Legal Marxism".

Political reaction of the 80-90s of the XIX century. The era of counterreforms.

Alexander III. Manifesto on the "inviolability" of the autocracy (1881). Counter-reform policy. Results and significance of counter-reforms.

The international position of Russia after the Crimean War. Changes in the country's foreign policy program. The main directions and stages of Russian foreign policy in the second half of the XIX century.

Russia in the system of international relations after the Franco-Prussian war. Union of three emperors.

Russia and the Eastern Crisis of the 70s of the XIX century. The goals of Russia's policy in the Eastern question. The Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878: reasons, plans and forces of the parties, the course of hostilities. San Stefano Peace Treaty. Berlin Congress and its decisions. The role of Russia in the liberation of the Balkan peoples from the Ottoman yoke.

Foreign policy of Russia in the 80-90s of the XIX century Formation of the Triple Alliance (1882). Deterioration of Russia's relations with Germany and Austria-Hungary. The conclusion of the Russian-French alliance (1891-1894).

• Buganov V.I., Zyryanov P.N. History of Russia: late 17th - 19th centuries ... - M .: Education, 1996.

The article briefly describes the Crimean War of 1853-1856, which influenced the further development of Russia and became the immediate reason for the reforms of Alexander II. The war revealed a significant lag between Russia and Europe both in the military field and in all spheres of state structure.

1. Causes of the Crimean War
2. The course of the Crimean War
3. Results of the Crimean War

Causes of the Crimean War

• The cause of the Crimean War was the aggravation by the middle of the 19th century. eastern question. The Western powers showed an increased interest in the territories of the weakening Ottoman Empire in Europe, plans were made for the possible division of these territories. Russia was interested in seizing control over the Black Sea straits, which was economically necessary. Strengthening Russia would allow it to expand its influence in the region, which worried Western countries. They adhered to the policy of preserving a weak Turkey as a source of constant danger to the Russian Empire. Turkey was promised Crimea and the Caucasus as a reward for a successful war with Russia.
• The central reason for the war was the struggle of the Russian and French clergy for the possession of the holy places in Palestine. Nicholas I, in the form of an ultimatum, declared to the Turkish government that it recognized the right of the Russian emperor to provide assistance to all Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman Empire (mainly the Balkan region). Hoping for the support and promises of the Western powers, Turkey rejected the ultimatum. It became clear that the war could no longer be avoided.

The course of the Crimean War

• In June 1853, Russia introduces troops into the territory of Moldova and Wallachia. The pretext is the protection of the Slavic population. In response, Turkey declares war on Russia in the fall.
• Until the end of the year, Russia's military operations are successful. It expands its sphere of influence on the Danube, wins victories in the Caucasus, the Russian squadron blocks Turkish ports on the Black Sea.
• Russian victories are causing concern in the west. The situation changes in 1854, when the fleet of England and France enters the Black Sea. Russia declares war on them. After that, European squadrons are sent to blockade Russian ports in the Baltic and the Far East. The blockades were demonstrative in nature, the landing attempts ended in failures.
• Russia's successes in Moldavia and Wallachia ended under pressure from Austria, which forced the withdrawal of the Russian army and itself occupied the Danube principalities. There is a real threat of creating an all-European coalition against Russia. Nicholas I was forced to concentrate his main forces on the western border.
• Meanwhile, Crimea becomes the main arena of the war. The allies blockade the Russian fleet in Sevastopol. Then there is a landing and the defeat of the Russian army on the river. Alma. In the fall of 1854, the heroic defense of Sevastopol begins.
• The Russian army is still gaining victories in the Transcaucasus, but it is already becoming clear that the war is lost.
• By the end of 1855, the besiegers of Sevastopol succeeded in capturing the southern part of the city, which, however, did not lead to the surrender of the fortress. The huge number of casualties forces the allies to abandon further assault attempts. The fighting actually ends.
• In 1856, a peace treaty was signed in Paris, which is a black page in the history of Russian diplomacy. Russia was losing the Black Sea fleet and all bases on the Black Sea coast. Only Sevastopol remained in the hands of Russia in exchange for the Turkish fortress Kars captured in the Caucasus.

Results of the Crimean War

• In addition to territorial concessions and losses, Russia suffered a serious moral blow. Having shown its backwardness during the war, Russia was excluded from the ranks of the great powers for a long time, and was no longer perceived in Europe as a serious adversary.
• Nevertheless, the war became a necessary lesson for Russia, exposing all its shortcomings. An understanding of the need for significant changes has emerged in society. The reforms of Alexander II were a natural consequence of defeat.