The success of activities is customary to relate by abilities. Accordingly, the intellectual ability is determined by the QC. An individual-peculiar feature property is determined, which is a condition for the success of solving a specific task: the ability to disclose the values \u200b\u200bof words, build a spatial figure from the specified elements, detect patterns in a number of numbers and geometrical images, to offer many options for using a specified object, find a confluence of a problem Situations, formulate a new approach in learning any subject area, etc.

The intelligence psychologist is guided mainly to study the properties of the intellect and describes the intelligence in terms of achieving a certain goal in a particular form of cognitive activity.

There are four main aspects of the functioning of intelligence characterizing four types of intellectual abilities: convergence of ability, divergent abilities (or creativity), learning and cognitive styles. Each of the intellectual abilities is considered as a property of intelligence, derived with respect to the characteristics of the composition and structure of individual mental experience.

1. Convergent abilities.

Convergent abilities detect themselves in the effectiveness of the process of processing information, first of all, in the indicators of correctness and speed of finding the only possible response in accordance with the requirements of the specified situation. Convergent abilities are thus characterized by the adaptive possibilities of individual intelligence in terms of the success of individual intellectual behavior under regulated conditions of activity.

Convergent abilities are represented by three properties of intelligence.

The level properties of the intelligence characterize the achieved level of development of cognitive mental functions (verbal and non-verbal), acting as the basis of the processes of cognitive mapping (such as sensory distinction, the speed of perception, operating with spatial representations, the amount of operational and long-term memory, concentration and distribution of attention, awareness in specific subject area, vocabulary, categorical logical abilities, etc.)

Level properties were studied mainly as part of the test form. The degree of their severity allowed to estimate the convergent abilities of the reproductive type. A typical example of the level of intelligence properties is the abilities of intellectual activity that are diagnosed with the help of intelligent scales of the ventilation or Amthauer.

The combinatorial properties of intelligence characterize the ability to identify different types of bonds, relations and patterns. In the broad sense of the word - this ability to combine in various combinations elements of the problem situation and their own knowledge.

The idea of \u200b\u200bthe existence of productive forms of intellectual activity was first originated as part of a testological approach. This type of methodology includes verbal analogies tests, the test "progressive matrices" of Ringa, tests for text understanding, as well as tests that require the test ability to identify the basis of the similarity of objects.

Procedural intelligence properties characterize the elementary processes of processing information, as well as operations, techniques and strategies of intellectual activity.

In testology, this type of properties was not taken into account at all, since test diagnostics was focused solely on evaluating the effective side of intellectual activity. Thanks to the research in the field of cognitive psychology, an idea of \u200b\u200bthe fact that intelligence is not a static feature, but rather acts as a dynamic processing system.

Thus, in the diagnosis of intelligence, the emphasis began to shift on the assessment of how a person performs this or that task, as he solves this or that task. At the same time, a look at the intellect as a convergent ability.

In theory of J. Piaget, the assessment of the level of development of intellectual possibilities of the child was based taking into account the degree of formation of mental operations, the psychological limit of the development of which formally logical ways of knowledge were declared.

In domestic psychology, mental operations and mental actions were considered as the procedural properties of intellect. Assessment of the level of intellectual development of the individual associated with the formation of analysis of analysis, synthesis and generalizations in the process of solving the problem, as well as the formation of basic mental actions (perceptual, mnemic, mental) in connection with the achievement of certain cognitive purposes.

2. Divergent abilities.

Divergent abilities (or creativity) are the ability to generate a variety of original ideas in non-elected conditions of activity. Creativity in a narrow meaning of the word is a divergent thinking, a distinctive feature of which is the willingness to put forward a set equally to the right ideas about the same object. Creativity in a broad sense of the word is creative intellectual abilities, including the ability to bring something new to experience, the ability to generate original ideas in the conditions of permission or setting new problems, the ability to conscious spaces and contradictions, as well as formulate hypotheses regarding the missing elements of the situation, the ability to refuse From stereotypical thinking methods.

As a criterion for creativity, a complex of certain properties of intellectual activity is considered.

1) fluency (the number of ideas arising per unit time);

originality (the ability to produce "rare" ideas that differ from generally accepted, typical answers);

susceptibility (sensitivity to unusual details, contradictions and uncertainties, as well as the readiness of flexibly and quickly switch from one idea to another);

4) metaphoricity (willingness to work in a fantastic, "impossible" context, the tendency to use symbolic, associative means to express their thoughts, as well as the ability to see complex and, on the contrary, in a complex - simple),

Typical to diagnose creativity are the following plan: to name all possible ways to use a familiar subject, call all items that can belong to a specific class (in particular, list examples of liquids that are lit), continue the metaphor (in particular, "female beauty is like autumn, She ... "), Make a finished image based on a simple graphic form (for example, a circle), etc.

In most studies, when evaluating creativity, the first two indicators are taken into account: the number of ideas formulated by the tests and the degree of their rarity compared to the answers of other subjects. Over time, however, it turned out that the indicated indicators of divergent thinking are by no means an unambiguous evidence of creativity as creative intellectual ability. Thus, completely different psychological phenomena can stand for non-standard, or "rarity": originality as a manifestation of the creative-productive capabilities of the subject, the originality as a manifestation of personal hypercompensation of intellectual insolvency or mental inadequacy.

It should be emphasized that the traditional indicators of divergent abilities (creativity), as a rule, are very weakly predicted by the real creative achievements of a person in its everyday and professional activities.

2. Trainability.

The idea of \u200b\u200btrainee as a manifestation of the level of intellectual (mental) development arose in the context of the concept of the "zone of the nearest development". Under the nearest development zone is understood as the process of psychological development of the child who is under the leadership of an adult (first of all the teacher providing him with individualized pedagogical assistance).

Understanding the leading role of training in the mental development of children allowed domestic psychologists to formulate a clear position: the assessment of the "level of current development" of the child's intellect is insufficient to evaluate its intellectual opportunities, for the latter may manifest itself in completely other qualitative and quantitative indicators in the nearest development zone. The formation in the zone of the nearest development of new intellectual mechanisms depends on the nature of the learning, and from the creative independence of the child himself.

With a wide interpretation, learning is considered as a general ability to assimilate new knowledge and ways of activity. The main criterion of trainee is the "economy" of thinking: the shortest possible path in self-identification and formulation by the child of some patterns in the new educational material during his assimilation.

In a narrower sense of the word, learningability is the magnitude and growth rate of the effectiveness of intellectual activity under the influence of certain training influences. At the same time, as criteria for tract, they act:

the number of dosage assistance in which the child needs (from the experimenter or teacher);

the possibility of transferring learned knowledge or methods of Daxvia to perform a similar task.

Development of trainee tests is still just beginning. As an example, you can bring "diagnostically) program", prepared by Y.Gute and U. Warrab. The "diagnostic program" is a short-term test of the learner, in which a 6-8-year-old child is offered a series of tasks with a growing level of difficulty acting as a means of training under conditions of constant feedback with the subject. The material is geometric shapes, in which the child must master the classification and analogy.

As indicators of trainee, the following characteristics of the child's intellectual activity are taken into account: 1) the need for a prompt; 2) time spent on finding the principle of the analogy of the figures; 3) types of errors with the analysis of their sources; 4) The number of exercises you need.

The counting of trainee indicators should not, however, to obscure their psychological ambiguity.

Some researchers consider it possible to talk about two types of learning, which are based on different neurophysiological mechanisms and which are associated with different ways to acquire knowledge.

This is, firstly, explicit learning - training is carried out on the basis of an arbitrary, conscious control of the processes of processing information, and, secondly, implicit learningability - training is carried out involuntarily, in the conditions of gradual accumulation of information and the necessary skills as new activities.

Although the mechanisms of individual differences in the trainee are still explained, it is necessary to fix an important conclusion: the real intellectual potential of the child can be assessed only after the inclusion of two factors - training (in the form of teaching, and desirable high-quality and individualized) and teaching (in the form of active creative amazing of the child himself) . It follows from this that the statement of psychodiagnostics in relation to the psychological diagnosis and the forecast of the individual intellectual possibilities of preschoolers, schoolchildren and students in principle is insufficient.

3. Cognitive styles

In recent decades, in the psychology of knowledge, interest in the individual specifics of intellectual activity, which in general, was indicated by the term "cognitive styles" in general, was becoming more and more actively.

The concept of "cognitive style" emphasized the attention of researchers on individual different ways to study reality. It is very characteristic that initially individual differences in preferred methods of intellectual activity (styles) were fundamentally contrasted with individual differences in the success of intellectual activity (abilities).

For the first time, the criteria for the differences in styles from the abilities were formulated by the city of Uutkin, which, then for several decades, were unconditionally adopted by the majority of researchers.

The ability characterizes the level of achievements from intellectual activity (that is, it is its effective characteristic). Style acts as a way to perform intellectual activity (i.e. it is its procedural characteristic). Accordingly, different styles can provide equally high success of solving a specific task.

Ability - unipolar dimensions. Style -Bipolar dimension.

Abilities always have a value context (the growth of abilities is always good). Evaluation judgments are not applicable to stylistic phenomena, since any pole of one or another style is equivalent in terms of the possibility of effective intellectual adaptation.

The ability to change time (the level of ability varies depending on age, education, etc.). Style is a steady characteristic of a person who is steadily inherent in different stages of ontogenesis and in various socialization conditions.

The ability to be specific to the content of concrete activities. The style is manifested generalized in various types of mental activities.

The assertion that the styles and abilities are alternative mental qualities, can be questioned and in connection with the considerations of a more general plan: firstly, methods of processing information about their surroundings in the form of certain style properties of intelligence directly or indirectly affect the productivity of intellectual behavior, secondly, styles, controlling basic cognitive processes (perception, memory, thinking), thereby acting as a metacognitive ability to ensure the effectiveness of self-regulatory activities, in third, styles already the fact of their presence indicate the formation of the ability The subject to the individualized form of cognitive reflection (i.e., they are evidence of a sufficiently high level of its intellectual development).

The latter assumption echoes the facts according to which typological differences in the individual style of activity are observed only at the subjects with a fairly high level of mental development.

The study of cognitive styles went in different directions, so now we can state the presence of four types of style properties of intelligence, such as: information coding styles, cognitive styles, intellectual styles and epistemological styles.

Information coding styles are individual and fresh ways of presenting information depending on the dominance of a certain modality of experience (auditory, visual, kintest, sensual emotional, etc.).

Recently, the problem of the existence of different methods of perception of information was actively developed in line with neurolynguity programming (NLP). Three main spheres of "sensory experience" of a person were allocated: visual, audial, kinesthetic. Accordingly, different people take and process information about their surroundings, preferably relying or on visual experience (visually and with the help of mental images), or an auditorium experience (by hearing), or a kinesthetic experience (through touch, smell and other sensual impressions). Therefore, for a visual, a typical cognitive position - view, submit, observe; For the audio - listen, talk, discuss; For kinestics - act, feel, feel.

Thus, the measure of severity in the individual representative system of that or another method of presenting information is, depending on the defined structures of its cognitive experience, it is characterized by this person's character encoding style. According to J. Brunaru, the integration measure of different ways of encoding information characterizes the level of intellectual development.

Cognitive styles are individually peculiar ways of processing information about the current situation (methods for its perception, analysis, categorization, assessment, etc.). In foreign and domestic literature, you can find a description from 15 to 20 different cognitive styles. We give some of them.

Foundation-dependent - full-dependent. Representatives of the polysepended style are more trusted by visual visual impressions when evaluating what is happening and with difficulty overcome the visible field when it is necessary to detail and structuring the situation. Representatives of polynevo-dependent style, on the contrary, rely on internal experience and are easily removed from the influence of the field, quickly and accurately highlighting the item from a holistic spatial situation.

The impulsivity is reflexiveness. People with impulsive style quickly push hypotheses in an alternative selection situation, while they allow many erroneous solutions to identify perceptual objects. For people with a reflective style, on the contrary, a more slow-down decision-making pace is characterized in such a situation, respectively, they allow few errors in identifying compliant facilities due to their careful preliminary analysis.

A narrow wide equivalence range (or analyticity is synthetic). Representatives of the Narrow Equivalence Range (Analytical Style) Pole are inclined to navigate the differences in objects, paying attention mainly to their details and distinctive features. Representatives of the pole of a wide range of equivalence (synthetic style), on the contrary, are inclined to navigate the similarity of objects, classifying them with some generalized categorical bases.

Nethalonce - tolerance to unrealistic experience. This cognitive style detects itself in uncertain, ambiguous situations and characterizes the measure of impressions that do not correspond to or even contradictory ideas that he regains as correct and obvious. Tolerant entities evaluate experience in their actual characteristics, while incomparable subjects resist the cognitive experience, in which the initial data contradict their cash.

Cognitive simplicity - complexity. Some people understand and interpret what is happening in a simplified form based on fixation of a limited set of information (pole of cognitive simplicity). Others, on the contrary, tend to create a multidimensional model of reality, highlighting a lot of interrelated parties (pole of cognitive complexity).

Thus, we can make some general conclusions regarding the nature of cognitive styles. The fact is that as empirical data is accumulated, the style approach was in a fairly difficult situation. On the one hand, the opposition of the style and productive aspects of intellectual activity has not kept strict empirical and theoretical audit. On the other hand, the identification of cognitive styles and convergent abilities was incorrect due to the obvious difference in the procedures for their operationalization.

In one of the works MA The point of view was justified according to which cognitive styles are the "other" type of intellectual abilities (relatively with traditional convergent and divergent abilities) characterizing, firstly, the features of the construction of individual representations of what is happening and, secondly, the individual capabilities of the metaclinative regulation of intellectual Activities.

Intelligent styles are individually peculiar ways of setting and solving problems. There are three intellectual styles that are manifested in the choice of professional activities and, accordingly, in preferred ways to solve professional problems.

Legislative style. His representatives in their intellectual work ignore the norms and rules typical for most people. Even their own principles regarding the approach to the problem, they are ready to change at any time depending on the requirements of the problem itself. They are not interested in the details. They feel comfortable only when they have the opportunity to work inside their own system of ideas and when they themselves can develop a new approach to the problem. Prefer professions such as a scientist, university professor, writer, artist, architect, entrepreneur.

Executive Style People of this type are guided by generally accepted standards, tend to act according to the rules, prefer to solve in advance formulated, clearly affixed problems using already known funds. Choose a profession of lawyer, accountant, military, manager.

Evaluation style. People of this type have some minimum of their own rules, in the correctness of which they sincerely believe. They are focused on working with ready-made systems, which, in their opinion, can and need to "put in order" (for example, to make the right diagnosis and carry out the necessary impacts). In general, tend to analyze, criticize, evaluate and improve problems. Professionally self-defined, as a rule, as a literary criticism, psychotherapist, developer of educational programs, consultant, politics, judges.

All these styles detect themselves with the same high level of intellectual development and relate with equally high professional success. In addition, it should be borne in mind that for each person it is characterized by the balance of all three styles, taking into account, naturally, the specialization of each of them.

Compared to cognitive styles, intellectual styles, of course, are a more generalized style of intelligence. On intellectual styles, as the properties of individual intelligence are fashionable to speak only against the background of a sufficiently high level of intellectual maturity of the subject.

Thus, intellectual styles are a special kind of intellectual abilities related to the possibility of individualization of intellectual activity based on bringing the subject's individual resources with a certain type of problem.

Epistemological styles. These are individual-peculiar ways of the cognitive attitude of a person to what is happening, manifested in the peculiarities of the individual "picture of the world." Three epistemological styles are isolated: empirical, rationalistic, metaphorical.

Empirical style is a cognitive style in which personality builds its cognitive contact with the world based on data direct perception and subjective practical experience. People of this type are inclined to confirm the truth of their judgments with reference to facts, the care of measurements, reliability and repeatability of observations.

Rationalistic style is a cognitive identity style, whose look at reality is determined by wide conceptual schemes, categories and "theories". The adequacy of individual judgments is estimated on the basis of logical conclusions using the entire complex of mental operations. The main criterion for the reliability of the cognitive image is its logical stability.

Metaphorical style is a cognitive style that manifests itself in a tendency to the maximum variety of impressions and combination of certain areas of knowledge. The integrity of the world view is combined with its personification (that is, the representation of reality in terms of personal experiences, assessments, beliefs). Checking the reliability of the cognitive image is carried out by reference to its own intuition.

According to Royu, cognitive styles are the mental quality of the highest order in the sense that they determine the method of communication of the convergent abilities and affective personal traits in the acts of individual behavior. In essence, the severity of certain epistemological styles is a consequence of the formation of those mechanisms that ensure the interaction of intellectual and affective capabilities of the subject. For example, rational style is responsible for the integration of conceptual abilities and emotional independence, empirical style - perceptual abilities and introversion / extroversion, metaphorical style - symbolic abilities and emotional stability. Consequently, epistemological styles can be considered comparatively, for example, with conversion abilities - a higher level of higher-level intellectual abilities that detect themselves in the indicators of individualized integration of cognitive and affective experience in the subject.

Thus, informative styles - in the severity of certain forms of presenting information (coding styles), the formation of mechanisms of involuntary intellectual control (cognitive styles), the measures of the individualization of the methods of formulation and solving problems (intellectual styles) or the degree of integration of cognitive and affective experience (epistemological styles ) - They have, apparently, the attitude towards productive intelligence capabilities and can be considered as a special kind of intellectual abilities.

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The term "intelligence", in addition to its scientific significance (which has its own theorist), like an old cruiser shells, hurt the infinite number of ordinary and popular interpretations. The referencing of the works of the authors who in one way or another touched this subject would take not one hundred pages. Therefore, we will conduct a brief overview and choose the most acceptable interpretation of the concept of "intelligence".

The main criterion for the extraction of intelligence as an independent reality is its function in the regulation of behavior. When they talk about intelligence as some ability, first of all rely on its adaptation value for humans and higher animals. Intellect, as V. Stern believed, there is some overall ability to adapt to new life conditions. The adaptive act (stern) is the solution of the vital problem carried out by means of a mental ("mental) equivalent of an object, through the" action in mind "(or, according to Ya. Ponomarev," in the internal action plan "). Due to this, the solution of some problem is carried out here and now without external behavioral samples, properly and disposable, samples, testing hypotheses are carried out in the "Internal Action Plan".

According to L. Balani, the intellect refers to one of the ways to acquire knowledge. But, in the opinion of most other authors, the acquisition of knowledge (assimilation, according to J. Piaget) speaks only by the side of the process of applying knowledge when solving the vital task. It is important that the task is really new or at least had a novelty component. The problem of intelligent behavior is closely related to the problem of "transfer" - the transfer of "knowledge - operations" from one situation to another (new).

But in general, developed intelligence, according to J. Piaget, is manifested in universal adaptability, in achieving an "equilibrium" of an individual with the environment.

Any intellectual act involves the activity of the subject and the presence of self-regulation during its implementation. According to Akimova, the basis of intelligence is the mental activity, while self-regulation only provides the need for solving the level of activity. To this point of view, E. A. Golubev is adjacent, believing that activity and self-regulation are basic factors of intellectual productivity, and efficiency adds to them.

In the view of the nature of intelligence as the ability contains rational grain. It becomes noticeable if you look at this problem from the point of view of the relationship of conscious and unconscious in the psyche of a person. Still in N Pushkin considered the thought process as the interaction of consciousness and subconscious. At various stages of solving the problem, the leading role from one structure goes to another. If at the stage of setting the problem and analysis dominates consciousness, then at the stage of the "incubation of ideas" and the activity of the hypotheses, the activity of the unconscious is played. At the time of "Insight" (unexpected discovery, illusion), the idea is breaking into consciousness thanks to the "short circuit" on the principle of "key-lock", which is accompanied by bright emotional experiences. At the stage of selection and testing hypotheses, as well as evaluations of the decision again dominates consciousness.

It can be concluded that with the intellectual act dominates, regulates the process of solving consciousness, and the subconscious acts as an object of regulation, that is, in the subdominant position.

For convenience, you will show the following scheme:

• dominant impact
• subdomed impact (feedback).

Intellectual behavior comes down to the adoption of the rules of the game, which the system with a psyche, imposes an environment. The criterion of intellectual behavior is not the transformation of the medium, but the opening of the environmental capabilities for the adaptive actions of the individual in it. At least, the transformation of the medium (creative act) only accompanies the expedient human activity, and its result (creative product) is a "by-product of activity", according to the terminology of Ponomarev, which is realized or not recognized by the subject.

It is possible to give a primary definition of intelligence as some ability that determines the overall success of adapting a person to new conditions. The mechanism of intelligence is manifested in solving the task in the internal plan of action ("in the mind") during the dominance of the role of consciousness over the unconscious. However, such a definition is just as controversial as all others.

J. Thompson also believes that the intellect is only an abstract concept that simplifies and summarizes a number of behavioral characteristics.

Since intelligence as reality existed to psychologists, like chemical compounds - to chemists, it is important to know its "ordinary" characteristics. R. Sternberg for the first time made an attempt to define the concept of "intelligence" at the level of the description of ordinary behavior. As a method, he chose a factor analysis of expert judgments. Ultimately, three forms of intellectual behavior were separated:

1. verbal intelligence (word stock, erudition, ability to understand read),
2. ability to solve problems
3. practical intelligence (the ability to achieve the goals and pr.).

Following R. Sternberg M. A. Cold highlights minimum of the basic properties of intelligence:

1. level properties characterizing the achieved level of development of individual cognitive functions (both verbal and non-verbal), and presentations of reality underlying processes (sensory difference, RAM and long-term memory, volume and distribution of attention, awareness in a certain meaningful sphere, etc. d.);
2. the combinatorial properties characterized by the ability to identify and form a different kind of relationships and relationships in the broad sense of the word - the ability to combine in various combinations (space-time, causal, categorical-meaningful) components of experience;
3. procedural properties characterizing the operational composition, techniques and reflection of intellectual activity up to the level of elementary information processes;
4. regulatory properties characterizing the effects of coordination, control and control of mental activity provided by intelligence.

However, it is possible to wander for a long time in the dotches of substantial definitions of intelligence. A measuring approach comes to help in difficult cases. Intelligence can be determined through the procedure of its measurement as the ability to solve certainly constructed test tasks.

The position of the author of this book is that all psychological theories are not substantial, but the operational (according to M. Bunge). That is, any psychological construct describing the psychological property, the process, condition, makes sense only in combination with the description of the study procedure, diagnosis, measurement of behavioral manifestations of this construct. When changing the measurement procedure, its content changes and its content.

Consequently, reasoning about what intelligence is needed in the framework of the operational approach. It is most brightly manifested in factor models of intelligence.

The general ideology of the factor approach comes down to the following main prerequisites.:

1. it is understood that intelligence, like any other mental reality, is latent, that is, it is given to the researcher only through various indirect manifestations in solving life problems;
2. intellect is a latent property of some mental structure ("functional system"), it can be measured, that is, the intelligence has a linear property (one-dimensional or multidimensional);
3. many of the behavioral manifestations of intelligence are always greater than many properties, that is, you can come up with a lot of intelligent tasks to identify only one property;
4. intelligent tasks objectively differ in terms of difficulty;
5. the solution to the problem can be correct or incorrect (or can be close to close to the correct);
6. any task can be solved correctly for infinitely a long time.

The consequence of these provisions is the principle of a quasi-measuring procedure: the more difficult the task, the higher the level of development of the intelligence is required for its correct solution.

When forming a measuring approach to intelligence, we implicitly rely on the idea of \u200b\u200bsome ideal intellectual or about the "ideal intelligence" as some abstraction. A person who has an ideal intelligence can correctly and alone solve the mental task (or many tasks) an arbitrarily large difficulty for infinitely small time and, add, despite the internal and external interference. Usually, people think slowly, often mistaken, tiring, periodically indulging in intellectual laziness and passing to complex tasks.

In the measuring approach there is a certain contradiction. The fact is that in practice the universal reference point is not used - "perfect intelligence", although its use is justified theoretically. Each test can potentially be fulfilled with 100% success, so the subjects should be located on one straight line, depending on the magnitude of their backlog from the perfect intellectual. However, in practice, a non-scale relationship is currently adopted, an objective absolute point of reference ("absolute zero", as in Kelvin's temperature scale), and the scale of the intervals in which the absolute point of reference is absent. On the scale of intervals, people are located, depending on the level of development of individual intelligence, on the right or left side of the conditional "medium" intellectual.

It is understood that the distribution of people in terms of intelligence, like most biological and social characteristics, is described by the law of normal distribution. The medium-intellectual person is the most common thing in the population of an individual, the decisive task of the average difficulty with a 50% probability or for the "average" time.

The main essence of the measuring approach is in the procedure and content of test tasks. It is important to determine which tasks are aimed at the diagnosis of intelligence, and which on the diagnosis of other mental properties.

The emphasis is shifting to the interpretation of the content of the tasks: whether they are new to the subject and whether the manifestation of such signs of intelligence is required to successfully solve them as autonomous actions in mental space (in the mental plan).

The operational understanding of the intellect has grown out of the primary idea of \u200b\u200bthe level of mental development, which determines the success of any cognitive, creative, sensor engine and other tasks and manifest in some universal characteristics of human behavior.

This point of view relies on the works of A. Bina, devoted to the diagnosis of mental development of children. As a "ideal intellectual", Bina probably represented a man of Western European civilization, mastered by some basic knowledge and skills, and the sign of normal development considered the rates of intellectual development of children of the "middle class.

In his first test battery, such tasks included such as: "Find the rhyme to the word" glass "(12 years old)," count from 20 to i "(8 years old) and others (see Table 1).

Table 1. Scale of the mental development of Bina-Simon (option 1911) (Burlachuk L. F., Morozov S.M. "Dictionary-Directory on Psychodiagnostics". - St. Petersburg: "Peter", 1998)
Age Contents Task

1. Show your eyes, nose, mouth.
2. Repeat offer up to 6 syllables.
3. Repeat the memory of the number.
4. Name drawn items.
5. Call your surname.

1. Name your gender.
2. Call multiple items.
3. Repeat a number of three unambiguous numbers.
4. Compare the length of the lines shown (3 tasks).

1. Comparison in pairs of gravity.
2. Sy the square.
3. Repeat the word from three syllables.
4. Solve puzzle.
5. Count 4 subjects.

1. Determine the time of the day.
2. Name the appointment of several items of everybody.
3. Sens a rhombus.
4. Count thirteen items.
5. Compare from aesthetic point of view two persons (3 tasks).

1. Discern the right and left side.
2. Describe a picture.
3. Perform a few instructions.
4. Name the total cost of several coins.
5. Name the four main colors shown.

1. Comparison of two memory objects. The establishment of similarities between them.
2. Country account from 20 to 1.
3. Discovery of passes in the image of people (four tasks).
4. Name day, number, month, year.
5. Repeat a number of five unambiguous numbers.

1. Name all months.
2. Name the cost of all coins.
3. Make up two phrases from the proposed three words.
4. Reply to three easy questions.
5. Answer five more difficult questions.

1. Ranking items.
2. Playing shapes.
3. Search for inconsistencies in stories.
4. Answers to difficult abstract questions.
5. Drawing up a proposal of three words with one of the proposed in the task.

1. Confrontation with suggestion when compared lines of different lengths.
2. Drawing up a suggestion of three words.
3. For three minutes, pronounce 60 words.
4. Determination of abstract concepts.
5. Restore the order of words (3 tasks).

1. Repetition of unambiguous numbers.
2. Search for three rhymes to the word "glass".
3. Repeat supply of 26 syllables long.
4. Explanation of the meaning of the picture.
5. Completion of the story.

From the point of view of modern ideas about intelligence, not all tasks may be relative to it. But the idea of \u200b\u200bthe versatility of intelligence as the ability affecting the success of solving any tasks, received reinforcement in intelligence models.

Recall that the psychology of intelligence is an integral part of differential psychology. Hence, central issues to which intelligence theories must be answered:

1. What are the causes of individual differences?
2. What method can I reveal these differences?

The causes of individual differences in intellectual productivity can be medium (culture) or neurophysiological features defined by heredity.

The method of identifying these differences can be an external expert assessment of behavior based on common sense. In addition, individual differences in the level of development of intelligence we can identify with the help of objective methods: systematic observation or measurement (tests).

If you have a very rough and approximate classification of various approaches to the problem of intelligence, then I will identify two bases of classification:

1. Culture - Neurophysiology (external environment - heredity)
2. Psychometric - ordinary knowledge

On the scheme below (Figure 3), the options of approaches to the study of intelligence are indicated and the names of their brightest representatives and propagandists are indicated.


As for the cultural and historical approach to the problem of differential psychology of intellect, it is most pronounced and consistently in the book of Michael Cowla "Cultural and Historical Psychology" (Kogito-Center, 1997) I send interested readers to it

The remaining approaches to one way or another are presented on the pages of this book.

The main today is a psychometric approach in its factor version.

Everyone knows about test tests of the intellect ratio, and many even passed them, surprised by strange issues that detecting whether the ability to count, or the wealth of the vocabulary stock. So what is it to intellectual activity, and why strive for its improvement?

Development of intellectual abilities

In general, the intelligence understands the system of all cognitive processes - thinking, sensations, memory, ideas, attention, perception and imagination. The concept of intelligence helps to summarize behavioral characteristics necessary to adapt a person to changing living conditions. Allocate the ability to solve life tasks, verbal (understanding of read, lexical reserve, erudition) and practical intelligence (ability to achieve the goals set). Thus, the intelligence can be considered a certain stage of the development of the thought apparatus. In turn, the ability to intellectual activity is a set of individual peculiarities of perception and processing of incoming information. The structure of human intellectual abilities looks like this way:

1. The deposits are the foundations caused by the nuances of the brain structure.
2. General, manifested equally in any form of activity -, learning, attentiveness.
3. Special - need for certain types of activities. For example, a musical rumor or commercial cutter.
4. Group, developing on the basis of special and shared deposits.
5. Professional abilities who find manifestation in labor processes.

For a long time it was believed that a person is born with a certain warehouse of the mind, which is no longer possible to change. Later it became known that there really exists a constant base, but for the presence of most such skills we answer themselves. The rapid development of intellectual abilities goes in case of management activities, for sure, each has a friend who, having received at least a couple of people in submission, began to quickly progress.

But how to develop intellectual abilities if the head of the head is still far? The answer is simple - to master new knowledge and skills that will be required for professional activities. And do not think that you are no longer able to learn anything new, you always have a chance to detect useful information for yourself.

Simply put, force your brain to work, do not turn into a bioreobot with a minimum of physiological needs and a simple management system.

Each student is different from others by its mental abilities. There is a certain classification of mental abilities, which allows you to divide students to a number of categories. This classification is based on the detection of the intelligence coefficient (I. Q.), which is defined as the ratio of the mental age of the student to its chronological (actual) age. If the test schoolboy demonstrates a high mental age compared to the average students - its peers, it is believed that it has a high intelligence coefficient. If the mental age turns out for the corresponding chronological age low, therefore, the student has a low intelligence coefficient. Here is the formula for calculating the coefficient of intelligence:

Correcting school programs with differences in mental abilities, students are usually classified in the main four categories, based on the intellect ratio.

1. High level. I. Q. 110 points and above. Depending on the number of points over the test I. Q. Students of this category are classified as very capable (110-119), uncommon (120-139) and gifted (140 and higher).

2. Middle level. I. Q. 90-109 points.

3. Level below average. I. Q. 70-89. This category includes children with a delay in mental development (80-89) and borderline intelligence disorders (70-79).

4. Mentally backward children. I. Q. below 70.

At one time, called weakly, now they are classified as lending (approximately 50-69), perhaps the advent of elementary skills (approximately 25-49) and needing permanent care (below 25). In general, the school program is focused on the average, since most students belong to this category. Special training programs are provided for those who have intellectual abilities above the average level, below average, as well as for children with mental development delays. Therefore, when considering the issue of individual differences in mental abilities, we are talking about students deviating in one direction or another from the mean level.

Homogeneous and inhomogeneous groups of students. The novice teacher will face very contradictory approaches to individual differences in the mental abilities of students. One of the main questions around which the acute controversy is conducted, is whether schoolchildren with similar intelligence should be trained separately from others? Some teachers and figures of education express sharp objections against the so-called homogeneous grouping of students, considering it non-democratic. They argue that this practice deprives uncommon students with the possibility of communication with schoolchildren not so gifted and thus prevents mutual understanding among young people. According to these teachers, with such interpretation, students of medium-sized abilities, as well as delays in mental development, do not receive the necessary incentives arising from the interaction in the class with more gifted peers. Further, opponents of training in homogeneous groups believe that each class should reflect the presence of different levels of mental abilities among students, which corresponds to the situation in society as a whole from the point of view of individual differences in citizens. They also argue that such a practice generates intellectual snobbery by students with an extraordinary mental development and a complex of inferiority among students with abilities below average.

Supporters of training in homogeneous groups put forward their arguments. Segregation based on the difference in mental abilities is essentially democratic, they argue. It provides intellectual development opportunities to all in accordance with their abilities. Methods of teaching used materials - everything corresponds to a certain level of students' abilities. In response to the argument that students of homogeneous groups or differ in charge, or suffer from an inferiority complex, supporters of homogeneous grouping prove that schoolchildren know how to compare their abilities well. It does not matter, in which group the learning process passes. Moreover, these theorists are stated, there is no need to mislead students, inspiring them the idea that in school all equal abilities, because later the young generation will be faced with the diversity of professions and social responsibilities of citizens, and it is necessary to adapt *.

* (Similar demagogic arguments, characteristic of many US education figures, are aimed at the substitution of the examination of individual differences in children the thesis on the alleged "natural need" of the differentiation of students on the abilities. In fact, it turns around, social segregation in the walls of the school. Supporters of this practice are treated to one or another variant of the anti-scientific theory of congenital mental abilities, which allegedly predetermine the intellectual development of the child and the possibility of its further learning.

Pupil segregation is carried out mainly by applying intellectual testing in schools. The prominent Soviet psychologist A. N. Leontyev noted that the tests for the definition of abilities, gifts, in fact, "stating only what tasks are solved, and which are not solved by the child ... should be decisively unsuitable for assessing the mental abilities of the child ..." (Leontyev A. N. Problems of the development of the psyche. M., 1981, p. 556). Since the success in performing test tasks depends on the overall cultural baggage of the child, then children from secured families standing at higher stairs of the social staircase fall into the category "capable". The organization of training in US schools is such that the categories of "capable" children are offered a rich program of training, while the majority of students are explicitly "diluted" program, knowingly limiting their progress in knowledge. What is happening in high school distribution of students on "academic" and "non-academic" profiles is actually a social selection that creates educational privileges for direct classes. Thus, the practice of intellectual testing, actually aimed at the distribution of students on unequal training programs, comes from bourgeois-class interests.

American teachers Marxists strongly oppose the intellectual and social segregation of students in US schools. Referring to the results of modern psychological science, primarily on the research of Soviet psychologists, they emphasize that the formation of human abilities occurs throughout life, reminds of the responsibility of the mass school for creating the necessary conditions for the full development of each child (see: Questions of Education and Education In the works of foreign teachers Marxists. Ed. K. I. Salimova. M., 1980, p. 167 - 172).)

As we have convinced, the legitimacy of each of the above-mentioned forms is supported by certain arguments. Both they applied and continue to be applied in schools. The idea of \u200b\u200bthis book does not include a detailed consideration of a variety of working methods for homogeneous and inhomogeneous grouping of students. Let's stop short only on the most significant.

In a heterogeneous class, where children with various abilities are studying together, the teacher must find ways to stimulate outcomes of uncommon students, mitigate the requirements for lagging schoolchildren, and at the same time orient the teaching work on the prevailing lot of "medium" students. In fact, for teaching in a heterogeneous class from the teacher, "Triple" preparation is constantly required (learning mentally retarded students, as a rule, is carried out separately). Another difficulty is that the teacher is forced to distribute its time between three groups of students and cannot pay attention to only one of them. In recent years, an improved technique has been developed, allowing to significantly eliminate the above problems. Thanks to her, each student can work in the class with its pace, having mastered the training program. Among strategies to individualize training can be called the following: programmed learning, individualized training, training with the help of computers and finally learning open *. Most of these approaches are used yet on an experimental basis.

* (Training with computers is a modern version of individual programmed learning. In recent years, computer learning has been used in selected US schools. Submission of educational material, test checking for its absorption, introduction of auxiliary material, etc., usually occurs through the display (Output device of the computer with a remote control in the form of a keyboard of a typewriter and a television type screen).

Computer training for a complex, extensive program that takes into account the wide variety of individual characteristics of students in the passage of material requires large financial costs. Therefore, its use in the field of school education USA does not go beyond the experiment. Most experts consider the use of computer as one of the ways to organize a learning process that does not claim (nor in this, nor in the foreseeable future) to the dominant or exceptional role in school learning.

"Open" training is a pedagogical innovation, which from the beginning of the 70s. It turned out in some US schools, as a rule, at the initial learning step (that is, 1 to grade 6). With "open" training, classes are carried out in a large classroom, where they can accommodate up to 100 students located behind the mobile tables or directly on the floor with a soft carpet. In such a "open" class, special corners are created on subjects, 6 of which materials are collected for independent work. They are called "centers of interest" than emphasized the basic principle of "open" training: follow the interests and needs of the child. Children are mainly independently individually or small groups, - freely moving from one "center of interests" to another. If necessary, the "open" class space can be separated by moving partitions in accordance with the distribution of group groups. The teacher moves from one group of students to another, tries to cause and maintain their interest in working with educational material, gives advice on the course of independent classes, helps in case of difficulty. From time to time, it can arrange gaming pauses or read out loud to a separate group of students, which then again begin to independently work. Since the course of learning is actually determined by the desires of the child, by the end of the elementary school, it may be far from all the knowledge and skills provided by the program.

On the scale of the US mass school, the "open" learning accompanies a decrease in the level of knowledge and skills of students. In a number of pedagogical studies, it turned out that many of them cannot normally study in the atmosphere of uncontrollism, are lost without a targeted pedagogical manual. It was also found that many students of the "open" classes experience serious difficulties in the transition from the elementary school into secondary due to sharp differences in the organization of training.

As a result, many schools, originally adopted "open" training, began to abandon him in favor of more traditional ways to organize academic work.)

Training in homogeneous groups can also take various forms. In major cities, along with special schools for gifted children, there are schools for children with slow intelligent development. However, more common practice is the creation of special classes in an ordinary school. A student with outstanding abilities can be enrolled in such a class in all subjects or study only those of them in which it detects special abilities. Similarly, it was dealt with special classes for children with a low level of intellectual development. Grouping students according to abilities is usually accompanied by the corresponding modifications of the school program, when each group follows its learning profile. Thus, students with good abilities are engaged in high schools at the department of training in college and respectively seize more complex disciplines. Those students who do not focus on college are engaged in the so-called overall profile. Finally, for students with reduced intelligence, there is a program of the so-called "basic" learning - usually with a narrow production orientation.

Accelerated learning. Another way to satisfy the cognitive needs of students with uncommon abilities is the organization of the so-called accelerated learning. His program suggests the early completion of school education and sometimes combines with additional cognitive aspects regardless of how training is carried out - in homogeneous or inhomogeneous groups.

Forms of accelerated learning may be different. Gifted child can be allowed to start studying at school before usual. In her walls, he is given the opportunity to master the program faster than it is forces to children with average abilities. Even more relatively recently, the practice of early translation from class in class was distributed, but now it is observed quite rarely. With accelerated learning, the following organizational approaches are possible: a faster pace of training on various disciplines; creation of special groups of accelerated learning; Delivery tests on a specific discipline external. Individualized, programmed training, finally, training with computers can also be used.

Although, with accelerated learning, gifted students have the opportunity to master the school program in accordance with their abilities, this system has opponents. Their main argument is as follows: although one or another schoolboy in intellectual relations can overtake his peers for several years, according to other indicators of its development - let's say, in a physical, social, emotional plan - he can lag behind them. Young "Wunderkind", in studying the operation of peers for three or four years, may look like an explicit "baby" compared to his Great Associent Odnoklassniki. This creates the problems of adaptation for him, especially if the social and emotional development of such a schoolboy is not comparable to its intellectual level. It is for this reason that some teachers necessarily refer to the idea of \u200b\u200baccelerated learning. They believe that such a schoolboy is still better to study together with peers, but the teachers must offer him a more rich program of learning so that its intellectual development is not slow.

So, pedagogical approaches and traditions of schools regarding students' training with different levels of intellectual development may be unequal. Naturally, the novice teacher will have to adapt their teaching methods to the traditions of the school in which it works. The task of this book does not include a description of special techniques and teaching methods corresponding to the above-described organizational approaches. But it seems that a number of recommendations will be discussed with the reader in terms of teaching work with schoolchildren who have certain deviations from the norm in mental development.