In connection with the division of spheres of influence in Turkey, the question of who would really control the Black Sea straits (Bosphorus and Dardanelles) - vitally important for Russia sea ​​route in the Mediterranean. In 1827 Russia entered into a coalition with England and France to support the Greeks who rebelled against Turkish rule. The coalition sent an allied squadron to the shores of Greece, which destroyed the Ottoman fleet in the Navarino Bay. After that, the Turkish Sultan Mahmud IV called for a "holy war" against Russia. Turkey closed the straits to Russian ships and terminated the Akkerman Convention (1826), which regulates Russian-Turkish relations. In response, Emperor Nicholas I declared war on Turkey on April 14, 1828. This war was fought in two theaters of military operations - the Balkan and the Caucasus. Its main events took place on the Balkan Peninsula.

Balkan theater of war

Campaign of 1828. If in the past wars with Turkey the main location of Russian troops were Moldavia and Wallachia, then with the incorporation of Bessarabia into Russia, the situation changed. Now the army could cross the Danube already with Russian territory, from Bessarabia, which became the main place of the army base. The significant proximity of the supply bases to the theater of operations reduced communications and facilitated the actions of the Russian troops. To attack Turkey, Russia had a 92,000-strong army under the command of Field Marshal Peter Wittgenstein on the Danube. She was opposed by Turkish troops under the general command of Hussein Pasha (up to 150 thousand people). However, they numbered less than half of the regular units. The 6th corps of General Roth was sent to Moldova and Wallachia, which occupied Bucharest on April 30, the 7th corps under the command of Grand Duke Mikhail Pavlovich besieged the left-bank fortress of Brailov, which surrendered on June 7 (after having repulsed a brutal assault on June 3). Meanwhile, the main forces, led by Wittgenstein and Emperor Nicholas I, crossed the Danube west of Ishmael and entered Dobrudja. The main actions in the campaign of 1828 took place in the northwestern part of Bulgaria, in the triangle between the fortresses of Silistria, Shumla and Varna. Leaving a small barrier (9 thousand people) against the 20-thousand-strong garrison of Silistria on the Danube, the Russians concentrated their main forces against Shumla, near which the Turkish army was stationed, and the fortress-port of Varna. Without taking these strongholds, the Russians could not advance further south. The blockade of Shumla, in which there was a 40-thousandth garrison, was unsuccessful. First, the Turkish troops were not strong enough to take this main base (35 thousand people). Secondly, the Russian army besieging Shumla itself fell into a partial blockade due to supply disruptions. Fever and typhus broke out in the troops. The infirmaries were not ready to accept a huge number of patients.

Due to the lack of feed, a massive death of horses began. True, the blockade of Shumla, if it did not end in victory, then at least ensured the successful actions of the Russians against the third point of the triangle - Varna. An important role in the blockade of Varna was played by the Black Sea Fleet under the command of Admiral Alexei Greig, who dominated sea communications. During the siege of Varna, the Russian army had to repel the offensive of the 30-thousandth Turkish corps of Omar Vrione Pasha, who was trying to unblock the besieged garrison. On September 26, a general assault on Varna was undertaken. On September 29, Varna surrendered. About 7 thousand people surrendered. The capture of Varna was the largest success of the Russian troops in the 1828 campaign in the Balkan theater of operations. The siege of Silistria and Shumla had to be lifted in October. The retreat from Shumla took place in difficult conditions due to the active actions of the Turkish cavalry. To break away from her persistent pursuit, the Russians had to abandon their carts. The main part of the troops (75%) went to winter across the Danube. On the right flank of the Russian front on the Danube, hostilities unfolded in the area of ​​the Vidin fortress, from where Turkish troops (26 thousand people) tried in September to go over to the offensive against Bucharest. However, in the battle of September 14, 1828 at Boelesti (now Beilesti), they were repelled by the division of General Fyodor Geismar (4 thousand people). The Turks retreated beyond the Danube, having lost over 2 thousand people. The victory at Boelesti secured the rear of the Russian troops in Wallachia.

Campaign of 1829. In February, instead of Wittgenstein, General Ivan Dibich was appointed commander-in-chief - a supporter of more decisive actions. At the same time, Emperor Nicholas I left the troops, believing that he only fetters the actions of the military command. In the campaign of 1829, Diebitsch decided first of all to put an end to Silistria in order to secure his rear for a long-range offensive. The plan of the new commander was that, relying on Varna and the support of the Black Sea Fleet, to make a campaign against Constantinople (Istanbul). The international situation, associated with the growing hostility of Austria to Russia's successes in the Balkans, also prompted the Russians to take active steps. Meanwhile, the Turkish command in April launched an offensive against the Russian-occupied Varna. But the units of General Roth (14 thousand people) that arrived in time from Dobrudja managed to repel the onslaught of the 25-thousand Turkish army. On May 7, Diebitsch with the main forces (over 60 thousand people) crossed the Danube and laid siege to Silistria. Meanwhile, the Turkish command in mid-May organized a new campaign against Varna. A 40,000-strong army went there under the command of the vizier Reshid Pasha, who replaced Hussein Pasha as commander-in-chief.

Battle of Kulevche (1829). Diebitsch decided to prevent this serious threat to Varna, the fall of which would disrupt his campaign plan. The Russian commander left the 30-thousandth army to besiege Silistria, and he himself with the remaining 30 thousand people. He swiftly set out to the south to attack the flank of the army of Reshid Pasha, which was marching towards Varna. Diebitsch overtook the Turkish army in the Kulevchi area and decisively attacked it on May 30, 1829. The stubborn battle lasted five hours and ended with the complete defeat of Reshid Pasha. The Russians lost over 2 thousand people, the Turks ~ 7 thousand people. (including 2 thousand prisoners). Reshid Pasha retreated to Shumla and stopped active actions. The defeat of the Turkish army at Kulevche contributed to the surrender of Silistria, whose garrison surrendered on June 19. Over 9 thousand people were taken prisoner. Success under Kulevch and Silistria allowed Diebitsch to begin the implementation of the main part of his plan.

Trans-Balkan campaign of Diebitsch (1829). After the victory at Kulevche and the capture of Silistria, Diebitsch abandoned the attack on Shumla. Allocating part of his troops (3rd corps) for its blockade, Diebitsch with an army of 35,000, secretly from the Turks, set off on July 2, 1829 for the Trans-Balkan campaign, which decided the outcome of this war. Diebitsch was not afraid to leave behind the main Turkish grouping in Shumla and without hesitation moved to Constantinople (Istanbul). For the first time in the history of the Russian-Turkish wars, such a bold and brilliant maneuver was performed, which nominated Ivan Ivanovich Dibich among the famous Russian commanders. On July 6-7, Russian troops, having thrown back the barrage of Turkish detachments, crossed the Kamchia River and moved to the eastern part of the Balkans. This route was not chosen by chance, since here Diebitsch had the fortress of Varna occupied by the Russians in his rear and could always receive support from the Black Sea Fleet. Moreover, in order to prepare for the campaign, the Russian naval assault force captured the fortress of Sizopol (south of Burgas) on the coast in February, making it the main base for the possible supply of Russian troops in southeastern Bulgaria in advance. Attempts by the Turks to recapture Sizopol were repelled. By mid-July, in the brutal summer heat, when it seemed that the stones were melting, Russian soldiers overcame the Balkan steep slopes and, dropping small Turkish detachments, entered the plain. On July 12, Diebich immediately captured Burgas, the most important port on the Bulgarian coast. "The Balkans, considered impassable for so many centuries, were passed in three days and the victorious banners of Your Majesty flutter on the walls of Burgas, among the population that met our brave men as liberators and brothers," Diebitsch told Nikolai I. He had something to be proud of: In 11 days, his army covered over 150 km, while breaking barely passable, unfamiliar mountain slopes. The support of the population contributed to the success of the troop movement. Taking advantage of the friendly disposition of the Christians, Diebitsch at the same time neutralized the possible hostility of the Muslims, specially freeing them at home from the presence of their soldiers.

Having learned about the Russian campaign for the Balkans, the Turkish command moved from Shumla to the rear of Diebich's army two large detachments: Khalila Pasha (20 thousand people) to Sliven and Ibragim Pasha (12 thousand people) to Aytos. Having defeated the detachment of Ibrahim Pasha at Aytos on July 14, Dibich with the main forces moved west to Sliven. On July 31, in a battle near this city, the army of Khalil Pasha was defeated. So, in the rear of the Russians there were no large Turkish forces left, and they could continue on their way to Constantinople. Despite heavy losses in the Russian army (during the campaign, primarily from heat and illness, it was halved), Diebitsch decided to continue the offensive and moved on Adrianople (now Edirne). Having overcome 120 km in a week, the Russian army on August 7 approached the walls of Adrianople, which had not been seen by Russian warriors since the campaigns of Svyatoslav (X century). On August 8, the demoralized garrison of the fortress surrendered without a fight. So the last stronghold on the way to the Turkish capital fell. On August 26, the advanced Russian units were 60-70 km from Constantinople. The swiftness of movement largely predetermined the success of the Trans-Balkan campaign. The rapid and unexpected appearance of Russian troops near Constantinople caused shock and panic there. After all, never before has a foreign army come so close to the Turkish capital. At the same time, in the Caucasian theater of military operations, the corps of General Ivan Paskevich took the Erzrum fortress.

Peace of Adrianople (1829). Trying to prevent the capture of his capital, Sultan Mahmud IV asked for peace. The peace was signed on September 2, 1829 in Adrianople. For his campaign, Diebitsch received the honorary prefix Zabalkansky and the rank of field marshal to the surname. It should be noted that Diebitsch's maneuver had a downside. From an incredibly high incidence (scorching heat, bad water, plague epidemic, etc.), his victorious army was melting before our eyes. At the time of the signing of the peace, it was reduced to 7 thousand people. We can say that Diebitsch's triumph could turn into a disaster at any moment. It is possible that this was the reason for the rather moderate demands of Russia. According to the terms of the Adrianople Peace, she secured the mouth of the Danube and the eastern coast of the Black Sea. The principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia (present-day Romania), as well as Serbia, received autonomy, of which Russia became the guarantor. Greece also received wide autonomy. The right to free passage of Russian ships through the straits was restored.

This war cost the Russians 125 thousand people. dead. Of these, only 12% fell on those who died in battle. The rest died of illness. V this respect The Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829 turned out to be one of the most unfavorable for Russia.

Caucasian theater of military operations (1828-1829)

General Ivan Paskevich's 25,000-strong corps operated in the Caucasus. In the campaign of 1828 he took the most important Turkish fortresses: Kars, Ardahan, Akhalkalaki, Akhaltsikh, Pota, Bayazet. Leaving his garrisons in them, Paskevich took the troops to winter quarters. In winter, the Russians managed to repulse the Turkish onslaught on Akhaltsikh, and in the summer Paskevich's Erzrum campaign took place, which decided the outcome of the war in the Caucasus.

Paskevich's Erzrum campaign (1829). The campaign against the Turkish city of Erzrum (Arzrum) of the Caucasian corps of General Paskevich (18 thousand people) took place in June 1829. The Turkish army under the command of Seraskir Haji-Saleh (70 thousand people) acted against the Russians in this direction. In the spring of 1829 she moved from Erzrum to Kars, hoping to recapture this fortress from the Russians. The offensive was carried out by two detachments: Khaki Pasha (20 thousand people) and Khadzhi-Salekh (30 thousand people). Another 20 thousand people. was in reserve. Paskevich abandoned defensive tactics and himself went to meet the Turkish army. Taking advantage of the division of the Turkish forces, the Russian commander attacked them in parts. On June 19, 1829, he defeated the Khadzhi-Salekh detachment near the village of Kainly, and on June 20, he attacked the troops of Khaki Pasha and defeated them at the Battle of Mille-Dyuz. In these two battles, the Turks lost 17 thousand people. (including 12 thousand prisoners). The damage of the Russians was 1 thousand, people. Defeated, the Turkish army retreated to Erzrum in disarray. Paskevich actively pursued her to the walls of the city, the garrison of which surrendered almost without resistance on June 27 (on the day of the 120th anniversary of the Battle of Poltava). 15 thousand people were taken prisoner, including the seraskir Hadji-Saleh himself.

After the Erzrum campaign, Paskevich received the rank of field marshal. In this trip, as a traveler, the poet A.S. Pushkin took part, who left interesting notes about him "Journey to Arzrum". By the way, Pushkin took a personal part in the battle on June 14 at the heights of Saganlu. In the "History of military operations in Asian Turkey" by N.I. Ushakov, one can find the following testimony: "Pushkin, inspired by the courage so characteristic of a rookie soldier, grabbed the lance of one of the killed Cossacks and rushed against the enemy horsemen." True, soon he was withdrawn from the battle by Major N.N. Semichev, who was specially sent for this by General N.N. Raevsky (the son of the hero of the Patriotic War N.N. Raevsky) in order to protect the great poet from death.

Shefov N.A. The most famous wars and battles of Russia M. "Veche", 2000.
"From Ancient Rus to the Russian Empire". Shishkin Sergey Petrovich, Ufa.

The next Russian-Turkish war (1828-1829) was caused by several key reasons. Chief among them was the dispute over the straits, which opened the way from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean.

Straits problem

Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, stood on the Bosphorus. Before it was Constantinople (the Slavs called it Constantinople). Until here was the capital of Byzantium. It was this country that became the conductor of Orthodoxy in Russia. Therefore, the Moscow (and then St. Petersburg) rulers believed that they had the legal right to own the city, which had been the main stronghold of Christianity for a millennium.

Of course, apart from ideological reasons, there were also pragmatic motives. Free access to the Mediterranean could facilitate trade for our country. In addition, this would be another reason to confirm the status of one of the main European powers.

Conflict in the Caucasus

V early XIX For centuries, Turkey has already lagged noticeably behind its neighbors in its development. Russia won several wars with this country and gained access to the Black Sea.

However, any peace concluded with Turkey was only a truce. Conflicts of interest echoed even in years when there was no war between rivals. We are talking about the Caucasus.

In 1818, Russian troops began a war against the mountaineers - the indigenous inhabitants of this region. Aleksey Ermolov was the head of the campaign. However, our army struggled with difficulty with the mountaineers due to the fact that it was not adapted to the war in the mountains. In addition, the inhabitants of the Caucasus were helped by Turkey itself, which sold them weapons. The flow of rifles, cannons and money through the Ottoman Empire allowed the highlanders to successfully repel the attacks of the Russians for several decades. Of course, in St. Petersburg they knew about the help of Muslims to Muslims. Therefore, the Russian-Turkish war (1828-1829) had to end this detrimental to Russian Empire cooperation of rivals.

Greek question

Finally, the third cause of the conflict between the two countries was the Greek Revolution. This is how the national movement of this Balkan people is called in historiography. For several centuries, the Greeks were under the rule of the Turks. Ethnic contradictions were complemented by religious ones. Muslims often oppressed Christians.

In 1821, the Greek uprising began, which turned into a long-term war of independence. Christians were supported by numerous European countries: Great Britain, France and Russia. The Turkish sultan responded with massive repressions against the Greeks. For example, on the island of Crete, a metropolitan and several archbishops were killed during a church service.

The war inside Turkey hit the Russian economy hard. Not long before that, the rapid growth of Odessa began. This new Black Sea port became a free economic zone, where there were no duties. In peacetime, hundreds of ships sailed here. Most of them were Greek and belonged to Christian subjects of the Ottoman Empire.

Because of this, the Russian-Turkish war (1828-1829) was inevitable. Only with the help of force it was possible to help the Greeks and end the crisis in the economy of the southern regions of the country. When the Greek war had just begun, Russia was ruled by Alexander I. He was not in the mood to fight. Austrian diplomacy supported him in this endeavor. Therefore, before his death, Russia was limited only to symbolic actions against the Turks.

Decision of Nicholas I

However, in 1825, Alexander's younger brother, Nikolai, came to power. In his youth, he received a military education, as no one expected that he would become the heir. After Alexander, another brother, Constantine, was supposed to rule, but he refused the throne. By the way, this grand duke was named after the great Roman emperor who founded Byzantium. It was a symbolic gesture of Catherine II - she wanted to put her grandson on the throne in

Nicholas' military education and habits immediately made themselves felt. The country began to prepare for an escalation of the conflict. In addition, Nikolai wanted to pursue an independent foreign policy, and not look back at the European allies, who often stopped Alexander. The Western powers absolutely did not want Russia to be over-strengthened. As a rule, they tried to maintain a balance of power in the region, which, of course, did not like Nikolai. The Russo-Turkish War (1828-1829) was supposed to destroy It should also be considered a separate episode of the Greek Revolution and the struggle for independence (1821-1830).

Navarino battle

In 1827, a squadron began to be prepared in the Baltic, which was to go to the southern seas. Emperor Nicholas himself held a solemn review of the departing ships in Kronstadt.

In the area of ​​the Ionian Islands, the Russian squadron linked up with allied ships from France and England. Together they went to the Navarino Bay, where the fleets of Turkey and Egypt were located. This was done in order to force the Ottoman Empire to end its repressive policy against the Greeks and give them autonomy. The head of the Russian squadron was Rear Admiral Login Geiden. He invited the allies to take the most decisive action. The overall leadership was transferred to British Admiral Edward Codrington.

The Turkish commander was given an ultimatum: to stop military operations against the Greeks. He (Ibrahim Pasha) left this message unanswered. Then the Russian admiral persuaded the allies to enter the bay and start a battle against the Turks in the event that they open fire. The combined flotilla had dozens of battleships, frigates, brigs (about 1300 guns in total). The enemy had slightly more ships (in total, there were 22 thousand sailors on them).

At this time, the ships of the Turks were anchored. They were well protected, since there was a Navarino fortress nearby, which could open artillery fire on the enemy fleet. The bay itself was on the west coast of the Peloponnese.

Codrington hoped to avoid the battle and persuade Ibrahim Pasha without using weapons. However, when the Russian ship "Azov" entered the bay, fire was opened on it from the side of the Turkish battery located on the island of Sfakteria. In addition, at the same time, the Turks killed two envoys from England. Despite open fire, the Allied ships did not respond until they took up the dispositions that were prescribed to them, according to the Allied plan. The admirals wanted to completely close the Turkish fleet in the bay. This was facilitated by the fact that the bay was closed by land on three sides (by the mainland and the island of Sfaktoria). Remained to close narrow strait, where the European ships went.

Only when the allied squadron anchored did they return fire. The battle lasted more than four hours. The greatest contribution to the victory was made by the Russians and the British (the French admiral lost control of his ships during the battle).

In our fleet "Azov" especially distinguished itself. Lieutenant Nakhimov and Warrant Officer Kornilov, future heroes and symbols of the Crimean War, served on it. At nightfall, the bay was lit by numerous fires. The Turks destroyed the wrecked ships so that they would not get to the enemy. The Allies did not lose a single vessel, although, for example, the Russian Gangut received fifty holes.

It is the battle in Navarino Bay that is considered the prologue that marked the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829. (although it started a few months later). After they learned of the defeat in Istanbul, Sultan Mahmud II addressed an appeal to his subjects. He ordered all Muslims to prepare for jihad against Europeans, including Russians. This is how the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829 began.

War at sea

Our government was silent for some time. This was due to the fact that at the same time the war with Persia continued, and in St. Petersburg no one wanted a war on two fronts. Finally, in February, a peace treaty was signed with the Iranians. On April 14, 1828, he signed a manifesto on the war with Turkey.

At this time, the Russian squadron, which took part in the Navarino battle, was being repaired in the port of Malta. This island was the property of Great Britain. The British did not support Russia in its war against Turkey (the peculiarities of European diplomacy again affected). Great Britain has declared its neutrality. At the same time, her government favored Turkey more, not wanting to strengthen Russia. Therefore, our squadron left Malta in order to avoid unnecessary conflicts. She relocated to the island of Paros in the Aegean Sea, which in Russian sources was called the Archipelago until the 20th century.

It was her ships that took the first blow of the Turks in an open war. April 21 happened sea ​​battle between the Egyptian corvette and the Russian battleship Ezikil. The victory was for the latter. With the beginning of the war in the Baltic, several more fresh ships were urgently prepared, which went to the rescue in the Mediterranean Sea (the straits from the Black Sea, of course, were closed). This complicated the Russian-Turkish war (1828-1829). The reasons for the need for reinforcements were the lack of ships to block

Blockade of the Dardanelles

This task was assigned to the fleet in the very first year of the war. This was necessary in order to cut off Istanbul from the supply of food and other important resources. If the blockade had been established, the Russian-Turkish war (1828-1829), the main events of which were still ahead, would have moved to a completely different level. Our country could take the strategic initiative into its own hands.

The Russo-Turkish War (1828-1829), the table shows it well, was fought in approximately equal conditions. Therefore, it was urgently necessary to acquire such a blockade advantage. Frigates and other ships headed for the strait. The Dardanelles were blocked on November 2. The Russian ships participating in the operation were based on the three nearest islands (Mavri, Tasso and Tenedos).

The blockade was complicated by the prevailing winter weather (by local standards). Storms began and a strong wind blew out. Despite this, the Russian sailors brilliantly performed all the tasks that were assigned to them. Istanbul was cut off from supplies coming from the Mediterranean.

In Smyrna alone there were about 150 ships of merchants, whose bread was spoiled as unnecessary. Until the end of hostilities, not a single Turkish ship could pass through the Dardanelles. Until August 1829, the blockade was led by Admiral Heiden. When the Russian soldiers entered Adrianople, the squadron was subordinated to Johann Diebitsch, a commander of Prussian origin. The fleet was preparing to break through the Dardanelles. All that was needed was an order from St. Petersburg. Russian troops won victory after victory on land, which guaranteed the success of the operation. However, the order was never followed. Soon peace was signed, and the Russian-Turkish war (1828-1829) ended. The reasons for this delay were hidden in the fact that the European powers, as always, did not want the final victory of Russia. The capture of Istanbul could lead to the start of a war with the entire West (primarily with England).

In 1830, all ships that fought in the Mediterranean returned to the Baltic. The exception was "Emmanuel", which was donated to the Greeks who became independent.

Balkans

The main force of Russia in the region was the Danube army (95 thousand people). Turkey had a contingent that was about one and a half times larger.

The Danube army was to occupy the principalities located in the basin of this river: Moldavia, Dobrudja and Wallachia. The troops were commanded by Peter Wittgenstein. He went to Bessarabia. This is how the Russian-Turkish war began on the mainland (1828-1829). The table shows the aspect ratio in this region.

The first to fall was the important fortress of Brailov. The siege of Varna and Shumla began. While the Turkish garrisons were waiting for support, an important battle took place in Wallachia, in which the Russian units won. Because of this, the besieged enemy army was left without hope for help from compatriots. Then the city was surrendered.

Campaign of 1829

In the new year 1829, Johann Diebitsch was put in Wittgenstein's place. He was given the task of crossing the Balkans and reaching the Turkish capital. Despite the outbreak of illness in the army, the soldiers completed their task. The first to be besieged was Adrianople (they approached it on August 7). The reasons for the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829 lay in the control over the straits, and they were already very close.

The garrison did not expect that Diebitsch's army would go so far into the borders of the Ottoman Empire. Due to his unwillingness to confrontation, the commandant agreed to surrender the city. In Adrianople, the Russian army discovered a huge amount of weapons and other important resources in order to gain a foothold in the region.

This meteoric success stunned everyone. Turkey agreed to negotiations, but deliberately delayed them, hoping that England or Austria would help her.

Meanwhile, the Albanian Pasha went to Bulgaria with an army of 40,000. With his maneuver, he could cut off Diebitsch's army stationed in Adrianople. General Kiselev, who at that time was guarding the Danube principalities, moved towards the enemy. He was the first to occupy Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria. Because of this, Mustafa was left with nothing and had to fight with significant forces in order to gain a foothold in Bulgaria. He did not dare to do this and retreated back to Albania. The Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829, in short, became more and more successful for Russia.

Caucasian front

In parallel with the events at sea and the Balkans, the war was unfolding in the Caucasus. The Russian corps in this region was to invade Turkey from the rear. In June 1828 he managed to take the Kars fortress. The course of the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829 here also developed in favor of Russia.

The further campaign of Ivan Paskevich's army was complicated by numerous mountain trails and difficult-to-reach crossings. Finally, on July 22, she found herself at the walls of the Akhalkalaki fortress. The detachment that protected her consisted of only a thousand people. In addition, the walls and fortifications of the fort were in disrepair. Despite all this, the garrison refused to surrender.

In response to this, an intensive artillery bombardment was launched with Russian guns. The fortress fell in just three hours. The infantry, under cover of artillery, quickly captured all the fortifications and the main citadel. This was another success that will be remembered for the Russian-Turkish war (1828-1829). The main battles at this time took place in the Balkans. In the Caucasus, the Russian army so far fought with small detachments, overcoming natural barriers.

On August 5, she crossed the Kura. On its tributary stood the important Akhaltsykh fortress. On the 8th, artillery fire was opened on it. This was done in order to deceive the 30-thousandth enemy army, which was stationed nearby. And so it happened. The Turks decided that Paskevich was preparing to storm the fortress.

Meanwhile, the Russian army imperceptibly approached the enemy and unexpectedly attacked. Paskevich lost 80 people killed, while the Turks left two thousand corpses on the battlefield. The remnants fled. There was no further noticeable resistance in Georgia.

In Transcaucasia, the Russian-Turkish war (1828-1829), in short, ended in a complete fiasco for the Ottoman Empire. Paskevich occupied all of modern Georgia.

It is curious that the great poet Alexander Pushkin was traveling around this country at that time. He witnessed the fall of Erzurum. This episode was described by the writer in the work "Journey to Arzerum".

A few years earlier, Paskevich successfully campaigned against Persia, for which he became a count. After victories over the Turks, he received the Order of St. George of the first degree.

Peace and results

When negotiations with the Turks were already underway, there was a heated debate in St. Petersburg about whether to stop the war, or still reach Istanbul. Nikolai, who had recently taken the throne, hesitated. He did not want to go into conflict with Austria, which opposed the strengthening of Russia.

In order to solve this problem, the emperor established a special committee. It included numerous bureaucrats who were incompetent in the issues that faced them. It was they who adopted the resolution according to which it was decided to forget about Constantinople.

The parties to the conflict made peace on September 2, 1829. The document was signed in Adrianople. Russia received many cities on the east coast of the Black Sea. In addition, the Danube Delta passed to it. Results of the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829 also consisted in the fact that the Porta recognized the transition to Russia of several states in the Caucasus. These were the Georgian kingdoms and principalities. Also, the Ottoman Empire confirmed that it will maintain autonomy for Serbia.

The same fate awaited the Danube principalities - Moldavia and Wallachia. Russian troops remained on their territory. This was necessary to carry out reforms in them. These were important results of the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829. Greece received autonomy (and independence a year later). Finally, Porta had to pay a significant contribution.

The straits became free for Russian merchant ships. At the same time, the treaty did not in any way stipulate their status during hostilities. This caused uncertainty in the future.

The Russian-Turkish war (1828-1829), the reasons, results and main events of which are described in this material, did not achieve its main goal. The empire still wanted to take possession of Constantinople, which was opposed in Europe. Despite this, our country continued its expansion in the south.

Russian-Turkish wars 1806-1812, 1828-1829 confirmed this trend. Everything turned upside down after a few decades. Shortly before the death of Nicholas I, the Crimean War began, in which European countries openly supported Turkey and attacked Russia. After her, Alexander II had to make concessions in this region and engage in reforms within the state.

After the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815), Russia returned to resolving the “Balkan issue”, which did not lose its relevance as a result of the Russian-Turkish war of 1806–1813. Seeing the weakness of his opponent, Alexander I even put forward the idea of ​​granting independence to Orthodox Serbia. The Turks, counting on the help of England and Austria, showed intransigence and demanded that Sukhum and several other fortresses in the Caucasus be returned to them.

In 1821, a national liberation uprising broke out in Greece, which was brutally suppressed by the Turkish authorities. Russia strongly advocated an end to violence against Christians and appealed to European countries with a proposal to exert joint pressure on the Ottoman Empire. However, European states, fearing a sharp increase in Russian influence in the Balkans, did not show much interest in the fate of the Greeks.

In 1824, Alexander I came up with an initiative to grant autonomy to Greece, but received a decisive refusal. Moreover, Turkey landed a large punitive corps in Greece.

Nicholas I continued the policy of his older brother. In 1826, Russia spoke out for the creation of an anti-Turkish coalition of European states. He planned to bring Great Britain and France to his side. The Tsar sent an ultimatum to the Turkish Sultan Mahmud II, in which he demanded the full restoration of the autonomy of Serbia and the Danube principalities. Nicholas II reported this to the British envoy - Duke A.U. Wellington (the winner at Waterloo) and said that now, if England does not support him, he will be against Turkey alone. Of course, Great Britain could not allow such important issues to be resolved without her participation. France soon joined the coalition. It is worth noting that the creation of the Russian-Anglo-French alliance, designed to support the "rebellious" Greeks in their struggle against the "legitimate authority" of the Turkish Sultan, was a serious blow to the legitimist principles of the sacred alliance.

On September 25, 1826, Turkey accepted the terms of the ultimatum of Nicholas I and signed a convention in Akkerman, in which it affirmed the autonomy of the Danube principalities and Serbia, and also recognized Russia as the right of patronage to the Slavic and Orthodox peoples of the Balkan Peninsula. However, on the Greek issue, Mahmud II did not want to back down. In April 1827, the Greek National Assembly elected in absentia the Russian diplomat I. Kapodistrias head of state, who was not slow to turn to Nicholas I for help.

On October 20, 1827, the Anglo-French-Russian squadron under the command of British Admiral E. Codrington defeated the Turkish fleet in Navarino harbor. The Russian cruiser "Azov", whose captain was M.P. Lazarev, and his assistants P.S. Nakhimov, V.I. Istomin and V.A. Kornilov are the future heroes of the Crimean War.

After this victory, Great Britain and France announced that they were abandoning further military action against Turkey. Moreover, British diplomats pushed Mahmud II to aggravate the conflict with Russia.

On April 14, 1828, Nicholas I declared war on the Ottoman Empire. There were two fronts: the Balkan and the Caucasian. On the Balkan Peninsula, a 100,000-strong Russian army under the command of P.Kh. Wittgenstein was occupied by the Danube principalities (Moldavia, Wallachia and Dobrudja). After that, the Russians began to prepare an offensive against Varna and Shumla. The number of Turkish garrisons in these fortresses significantly exceeded the number of Russian troops besieging them. The siege of Shumla was unsuccessful. Varna was captured at the end of September 1828, after a long siege. The military operation dragged on. In the Caucasus, the corps of General I.F. Paskevich blocked Anapa, and then moved to the Kars fortress. In the summer he managed to win back Ardahan, Bayazet and Poti from the Turks. By the beginning of the 1829 campaign, Russia's relations with Britain and Austria had deteriorated significantly. The danger of their interference in the war on the side of Turkey increased. It was necessary to hasten the end of the war. In 1829, the command of the Balkan army was entrusted to General I.I. Diebitsch. He stepped up offensive actions. In the battle near the village. Kulevcha (May 1829) Diebitsch defeated the 40,000-strong Turkish army, and in June captured the fortress of Silistria, after which he crossed the Balkan Mountains and captured Adrianople. At the same time, Paskevich occupied Erzurum.

August 20, 1829 to General I.I. Diebitsu received Turkish representatives with a proposal for peace negotiations. On September 2, the Adrianople Peace Treaty was signed. Under its terms, Russia acquired a part of the Danube delta and eastern Armenia, and the Black Sea coast from the mouth of the Kuban to Poti also passed to it. Freedom of merchant shipping through the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles was established in peacetime. Greece received full autonomy, and in 1830 became an independent state. The autonomy of Serbia, Wallachia and Moldavia was confirmed. Turkey pledged to pay an indemnity (30 million gold). Attempts by England to achieve a softening of the conditions of the Adrianople peace were resolutely rejected.

As a result of the war, Russia's prestige in the Balkans increased. In 1833, Nicholas I assisted the Ottoman Empire in the fight against the rebellious ruler of Egypt, Muhammad Ali. In June of this year, the commander of the Russian troops, A.F. Orlov, on behalf of the Russian Empire, signed a friendly agreement with the Sultan (for a period of 8 years), which went down in history as the Unkar-Iskelesi Treaty. Russia guaranteed the security of Turkey, and Turkey, in turn, pledged to close the Black Sea straits to all foreign (except for Russian) warships. The stormy indignation of the European powers forced Russia to go to the signing of the London Convention in 1840 and remove its fleet from the Bosphorus.

After the defeat of the united Anglo-French-Russian squadron in October 1827 of the Egyptian-Turkish fleet in Navarin Bay, Great Britain and France did not want to go into a further military conflict with Turkey, which Russia was so striving for. The Turkish government, given the differences between the three powers, stubbornly refused to give Greece autonomy and abide by treaties with Russia. The relations of the European powers with Turkey became complicated. This created a tactical benefit for its closest neighbor, Russia, which could now act more decisively against Turkey. Turkey's policy only pushed the expansionist circles of Russia towards aggression.

The successful completion of the war with Iran and the signing of the Turkmanchay peace allowed Nicholas I to start a war against Turkey. The purpose of this war, Russia saw the solution to the problem of its control over the Bosporus and Dardanelles - “the keys to its own home", As the Russians used to say at the time. Russia wanted to ensure freedom of exit to the Mediterranean and consolidate its influence in the Balkans and Transcaucasia.

The formal reason for the outbreak of hostilities was Turkey's "non-compliance" with the Akkerman Convention concluded with Russia in 1826, in particular, the article on the freedom of travel by Russian merchants through the Black Sea straits and on Russia's right of intercession in the affairs of the Danube principalities of Moldova, Wallachia, and Serbia ...

Having secured non-interference in the conflict of Great Britain, which, by virtue of the convention of 1827 and its participation in the Battle of Navarino, observed neutrality and even pledged not to interfere with the advance of Russian troops, on May 7, 1828, Russia began a war of conquest with Turkey. The international situation was indeed favorable to the Russian aggressors. Of all the great powers, only Austria openly provided material assistance to the Turks. France, for the same reasons and in view of the established close ties between the Bourbon government and the Russian government of the Romanovs, also did not oppose Russia. Prussia took a neutral position towards Russia.

Mediocrely managed, especially with the personal intervention of the tsar, the Russian army, despite the bravery of the soldiers, for a long time could not overcome the not too strong resistance of the Turkish army, which was in the process of reorganization. Numerous mistakes of the Russian command dragged out the war until the autumn of 1829. More or less successful military operations took place only in the Transcaucasus. But in Europe it sometimes seemed that the Russians would leave empty-handed and the whole enterprise would end in failure.

The Austrian Foreign Minister Count Clement Metternich, who supported the Turks, hastened to notify the embassies of Great Britain, France and Prussia about the supposedly hopeless situation of Russian troops in the Balkan Peninsula and began to offer the European powers to demand from the militarily weak Russia an immediate end to the war. However, neither the government nor the liberal part of society of these countries thought so, knowing well the Turkish Sultan Mahmud II as a representative of bloody despotism, the culprit of unheard-of atrocities against the Greeks.

The outcome of the war in Asia was decided after the capture by the army of Field Marshal Ivan Paskevich of an important strategic point - Erzurum (1829). In the European theater of war, the army of Field Marshal Ivan Dibich, finally, having killed the main Turkish forces at Kulevche, broke through the Balkans and, reaching the valley of the Maritsa River, captured the city of Edirne (Adrianople). The vanguard of the Russian troops began to threaten Istanbul (Constantinople).

The Turkish government, having suffered a series of military failures, began to seriously fear the occupation of the Turkish capital and the Bosphorus and Dardanelles by enemy troops. Mahmud II decided to ask for peace. Negotiations began. Fearing international complications, as well as the fact that Turkey would learn about the weakness of the Russian army, which is unable to take Istanbul (about four thousand soldiers were in hospitals), Russia was in a hurry to end the war and put forward its demands. On September 14, 1829 in Edirne (Adrianople) between Russia and Turkey was signed a peace treaty, enslaved for the vanquished. Turkey agreed to Russian demands. Under the terms of the agreement, she gave Russia part of her territories: the entire Black Sea coast from the mouth of the Kuban River to the pier of St. Nicholas (near Poti) and part of the Akhaltsykh Pashalyk. In the European part, the border between the two states was established along the Prut River before its confluence with the Danube; the islands in the Danube delta retreated to Russia. Turkey finally agreed to recognize the annexation of the Transcaucasian regions conquered by Russia at the beginning of the 19th century to Russia, and take the Turkmanchay peace treaty with Iran. Russian ships have received confirmation of the right of passage through the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles.

In the Danube principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, as well as in the Bulgarian fortress of Silistria, Russian troops remained until all the conditions of the Treaty of Adrianople were fulfilled. According to the Russian-Turkish treaty of 1829, these principalities continued to retain internal autonomy with the right to have a "zemstvo army", i.e. they were independent in internal government, but the principalities were vassal in relation to Turkey. In relation to Serbia, which had started another uprising by that time, the Turkish government pledged to fulfill the terms of the Bucharest Treaty on granting the Serbs the right to convey through their deputies to the Sultan demands for the urgent needs of the Serbian people. In the next 1830, the incessant unrest of the Serbs (to which Russia paid special attention, since the Serbs and Russians adhered to the Eastern Greek - Christian faith) forced the Turkish Sultan to issue a decree, according to which Serbia was also recognized as autonomous.

One of the important consequences of the Russian-Turkish war was the granting of independence to Greece. In the Treaty of Adrianople, Turkey accepted all the conditions that determined the internal structure and borders of Greece. In 1830: Greece was declared an independent state, connected with the Turkish sultan only by the obligation to pay 1.5 million piastres a year, and these payments began only in the fifth year after Turkey accepted the terms of the treaty. However, the disputed territories did not become part of Greece - part of Epirus, Thessaly, the island of Crete, the Ionian Islands and some other once Greek lands.

After lengthy negotiations between Great Britain, France and Russia regarding the structure of Greece, the population of the country was given the right to elect a prince from the Christian dynasties reigning in Europe, but not an Englishman, not a Russian or a Frenchman. In Greece, a monarchy was formed headed by the Prussian prince Otto. No matter how hard Russia tried, Greece soon fell under the financial and then political control of Great Britain.

Thus, Russia's victory over Turkey provided Greece with state independence and strengthened the autonomy of Serbia, Wallachia and Moldavia. The Adrianople treaty gave Russia great benefits: it was an important milestone in the liberation of the Balkan peoples from Turkish rule, and also contributed to the fact that Russia was able to withdraw its troops from the Balkans in order to throw them to suppress the uprising that broke out in 1830 in Poland, Belarus and Lithuania, as well as to put up forces against the murids, who continue to wage a people's war in the Caucasus.

Thus, the strengthening of Russia's position in the Balkans and Asia as a result of the war of 1828 - 1829. further exacerbated the Eastern question. By this time, the position of the Ottoman Empire was significantly complicated in connection with the open opposition to the sultan's power of another rebellious Turkish vassal - the Egyptian Pasha Muhammad-Ali.

Hussein Pasha

Reshid Pasha

In a broader context, it was a consequence of the struggle between the great powers caused by the Greek War of Independence (-) from the Ottoman Empire. During the war, Russian troops made a number of campaigns to Bulgaria, the Caucasus and northeastern Anatolia, after which the Porta asked for peace.

Statistics of the Russo-Turkish War April 25, 1828 - September 14, 1829

Background and reason

They were opposed by Turkish armies totaling up to 200,000 soldiers (150,000 on the Danube and 50,000 in the Caucasus); from the fleet, only 10 ships have survived, stationed in the Bosphorus.

Bessarabia was chosen as the basis for Wittgenstein's actions; the principalities (severely exhausted by Turkish dominion and the drought of 1827) were supposed to be occupied only to restore order in them and protect them from enemy invasion, as well as to protect the right wing of the army in case of Austrian intervention. Wittgenstein, crossing the Lower Danube, was supposed to move to Varna and Shumla, cross the Balkans and advance to Constantinople; a special detachment was to carry out a landing at Anapa and, upon capturing it, join the main forces.

On April 25, the 6th Infantry Corps entered the principalities, and its vanguard, under the command of General Fyodor Geismar, went to Little Wallachia; On May 1, the 7th Infantry Corps surrounded the Brailov fortress; The 3rd Infantry Corps was supposed to cross the Danube between Ishmael and Reni, near the village of Satunovo, but it took about a month to build a gati through a flooded lowland, during which the Turks fortified the right bank against the crossing point, placing up to 10 thousand people in their position. troops.

On the morning of May 27, in the presence of the sovereign, the crossing of Russian troops on ships and boats began. Despite fierce fire, they reached the right bank, and when the advanced Turkish trenches were taken, the enemy fled from the rest. On May 30, the Isakcha fortress surrendered. Separating the detachments for taxing Machin, Girsov and Tulchi, the main forces of the 3rd corps reached Karasu on June 6, while the vanguard, under the command of General Fyodor Ridiger, overlaid Kyustenji.

The siege of Brailov moved quickly forward, and the chief of the siege troops, Grand Duke Mikhail Pavlovich, in a hurry to put an end to this matter, so that the 7th corps could join the 3rd, decided on June 3 to storm the fortress; The assault was repulsed, but when Machin surrendered 3 days later, the commandant of Brailov, seeing himself cut off and losing hope of help, also surrendered (June 7).

At the same time, a sea expedition to Anapa took place. At Karasu, the 3rd corps stood for 17 days, since no more than 20 thousand remained in it for the allocation of garrisons to occupied fortresses, as well as other detachments. Only with the addition of some parts of the 7th corps and the arrival of the 4th reserve. the cavalry corps, the main forces of the army would have reached 60 thousand; but this was not considered sufficient for decisive action, and at the beginning of June the 2nd infantry was ordered to march from Little Russia to the Danube. corps (about 30 thousand); in addition, guards regiments (up to 25 thousand) were already on their way to the theater of war.

After the fall of Brailov, the 7th corps was sent to join the 3rd; General Company with two infantry and one cavalry brigade was ordered to besiege Silistria, and General Borozdin with six infantry and four cavalry regiments was ordered to guard Wallachia. Even before the execution of all these orders, the 3rd corps moved to Bazardzhik, from which, according to the information received, significant Turkish forces were gathering.

Between June 24 and 26, Bazardzhik was occupied, after which two vanguards were nominated: Ridiger - to Kozludzha and General-Admiral Count Pavel Sukhtelen - to Varna, to which a detachment of Lieutenant General Alexander Ushakov was also sent from Tulcha. In early July, the 7th corps joined the 3rd corps; but their combined forces did not exceed 40 thousand; it was not yet possible to count on the assistance of the fleet stationed at Anapa; siege parks were partly located at the named fortress, partly stretching from Brailov.

Meanwhile, the garrisons of Shumla and Varna were gradually strengthening; the vanguard of Ridiger was constantly disturbed by the Turks, who tried to interrupt his communications with the main forces. Considering the state of affairs, Wittgenstein decided to confine himself to one observation regarding Varna (for which Ushakov's detachment was appointed), with the main forces to move to Shumla, try to lure the seraskir out of the fortified camp and, having broken it, turn to the siege of Varna.

On July 8, the main forces approached Shumla and surrounded it from the eastern side, strongly fortifying their positions in order to interrupt the possibility of communications with Varna. Decisive action against Shumla was supposed to be postponed until the arrival of the guard. However, our main forces soon found themselves, as it were, in a blockade, since in their rear and on their flanks the enemy developed partisan actions, which greatly impeded the arrival of transports and foraging]. Meanwhile, Ushakov's detachment, too, could not hold out against the superior garrison of Varna and retreated to Derventkiyoy.

In the middle of July, the Russian fleet arrived from near Anapa to Kovarna and, having disembarked the troops on the ships, headed for Varna, against which it stopped. The head of the landing troops, Prince Alexander Menshikov, annexing Ushakov's detachment, on July 22 also approached the named fortress, surrounded it from the north, and on August 6 began siege work. The detachment of General Roth, stationed at Silistria, could not do anything due to the lack of forces and the lack of siege artillery. Under Shumla, things also did not progress, and although the attacks of the Turks undertaken on August 14 and 25 were repelled, this did not lead to any results. Count Wittgenstein already wanted to retreat to Yeni Bazar, but Emperor Nicholas I, who was with the army, opposed this.

In general, by the end of August, the circumstances in the European theater of war were very unfavorable for the Russians: the siege of Varna, due to the weakness of our forces in it, did not promise success; diseases raged in the troops stationed near Shumla, and the horses fell in droves from lack of food; meanwhile, the insolence of the Turkish partisans increased.

At the same time, upon the arrival of new reinforcements in Shumla, the Turks attacked the town of Pravody, which was occupied by the detachment of General-Admiral Benckendorff, however, they were repulsed. General Loggin Roth barely held his position at Silistria, whose garrison also received reinforcements. Gene. Kornilov, watching Zhurzha, had to fight off attacks from there and from Ruschuk, where the enemy's forces also increased. The weak detachment of General Geismar (about 6 thousand), although holding its position between Kalafat and Craiova, could not prevent the Turkish parties from invading the northwestern part of Wallachia Minor.

The enemy, having concentrated more than 25 thousand at Viddin and Kalafat, strengthened the garrisons of Rakhov and Nikopol. Thus, the Turks everywhere had an advantage in forces, but, fortunately, did not take advantage of this. Meanwhile, in mid-August, the Guards Corps began to approach the Lower Danube, followed by the 2nd Infantry Corps. The latter was ordered to replace the detachment of Roth at Silistria, which was then pulled under Shumla; the guard is directed to Varna. To rescue this fortress, the Turkish corps of Omer-Vrione arrived from the Kamchik River with 30 thousand. Several unsuccessful attacks followed from both sides, and when on September 29 Varna surrendered, Omer began to hastily retreat, pursued by the detachment of Prince Eugene of Württemberg, and went to Aydos, where the vizier's troops had previously withdrawn.

Meanwhile, gr. Wittgenstein continued to stand under Shumla; troops from him, for the allocation of reinforcements to Varna and to other detachments, only about 15 thousand remained; but in the 20th of Sept. the 6th corps approached him. Silistria continued to hold out, since the 2nd corps, lacking siege artillery, could not take decisive action.

Meanwhile, the Turks continued to threaten Wallachia Minor; but the brilliant victory won by Geismar near the village of Boelesti put an end to their attempts. After the fall of Varna, the final goal of the 1828 campaign was the conquest of Silistria, and the 3rd corps was sent to it. The rest of the troops under Shumla were to settle for the winter in the occupied part of the country; the guard returned to Russia. However, the enterprise against Silistria due to the shortage of shells in the siege artillery did not materialize, and the fortress was subjected to only a 2-day bombardment.

After the retreat of the Russian troops from Shumla, the vizier planned to seize Varna again and on November 8 moved to Pravody, but, meeting the resistance of the detachment occupying the city, he returned to Shumla. In January 1829, a strong Turkish detachment raided the rear of the 6th Corps, captured Kozludzha and attacked Bazardzhik, but failed there; and after that the Russian troops drove the enemy out of Kozludja; in the same month the fortress of Turno was taken. The rest of the winter passed calmly.

In Transcaucasia

The assault on Kars in 1828

The Caucasian army began operations somewhat later; she was ordered to invade the borders of Asiatic Turkey.

In Asian Turkey in 1828, things were going well for Russia: on June 23, Kars was taken, and after a temporary suspension of hostilities due to the outbreak of the plague, Paskevich conquered the Akhalkalaki fortress on July 23, and in early August approached Akhaltsykh, which surrendered on the 16th of the same month. Then the fortresses of Atskhur and Ardahan surrendered without resistance. At the same time, separate Russian detachments took Poti and Bayazet.

Military action in 1829

During the winter, both sides actively prepared for the resumption of hostilities. By the end of April 1829, Porta managed to bring its forces in the European theater of war to 150 thousand and, in addition, could count on the 40-thousand-strong Albanian militia, assembled by the Scutarian Pasha Mustafa. The Russians could oppose these forces with no more than 100 thousand. In Asia, the Turks had up to 100 thousand troops against Paskevich's 20 thousand. Only the Russian Black Sea fleet (about 60 ships of various ranks) had a decisive superiority over the Turkish; Yes, in the Archipelago, another squadron of Count Heyden (35 ships) cruised.

At the European theater

The commander-in-chief appointed to replace Wittgenstein, Count Diebitsch, actively set about replenishing the army and organizing its economic part. Having set himself the goal of crossing the Balkans, to provide the troops with food on the other side of the mountains, he turned to the assistance of the fleet and asked Admiral Greig to seize any harbor convenient for the delivery of supplies. The choice fell on Sizopol, which, after taking it, was occupied by a 3,000-strong Russian garrison. An attempt by the Turks at the end of March to seize this city again was unsuccessful, and then they limited themselves to blockading it from a dry road. As for the Ottoman fleet, it left the Bosphorus at the beginning of May, however, it kept closer to its shores; at the same time, two Russian warships were inadvertently surrounded by them; one of them surrendered, and the other, the brig "Mercury" under the command of Kozarsky, managed to fight off the enemy ships pursuing him and left.

At the end of May, the squadrons of Greig and Heiden began to blockade the straits and interrupted all shipments by sea to Constantinople. Meanwhile, Diebitsch, in order to secure his rear before the movement beyond the Balkans, decided first of all to seize Silistria; but the late onset of spring delayed him, so that only at the end of April he could ferry the forces needed for that across the Danube. On May 7, siege work began, and on May 9 new troops crossed to the right bank, bringing the forces of the siege corps to 30 thousand.

Around the same time, the vizier Reshid Pasha opened offensive actions with the aim of returning Varna; however, after stubborn dealings with the troops, Gen. The company at Eski-Arnautlar and Pravod the Turks again withdrew to Shumla. In the middle of May, the vizier with his main forces again moved to Varna. Having received news of this, Diebitsch, leaving one part of his troops at Silistria, with the other went to the rear of the vizier. This maneuver led to the defeat (May 30) of the Ottoman army near the village of Kulevchi.

Although after such a decisive victory one could count on the mastery of Shumla, however, it was preferable to limit oneself to observing it. Meanwhile, the siege of Silistria was going on successfully, and on June 18 this fortress surrendered. After that, the 3rd corps was sent to Shumla, the rest of the Russian troops, intended for the Trans-Balkan campaign, began to covertly pull together to Devno and Pravody.

Meanwhile, the vizier, convinced that Diebitsch would besiege Shumla, was gathering troops from wherever possible - even from the Balkan passages and from coastal points on the Black Sea. The Russian army, meanwhile, advanced to Kamchik and after a series of battles both on this river and during the further movement in the mountains of the 6th and 7th corps, about half of July, crossed the Balkan ridge, taking possession of two fortresses along the way, Misevria and Achiolo , and the important harbor of Burgas.

This success, however, was overshadowed by the strong development of diseases, from which the troops were noticeably melting. The vizier finally found out where the main forces of the Russian army were headed and sent reinforcements to the Pashas Abdurakhman and Yusuf who were operating against them; but it was already too late: the Russians were uncontrollably moving forward; On July 13, they occupied the city of Aidos, 14 Karnabat, and on 31 Dibich attacked the 20 thousand Turkish corps concentrated near the city of Slivno, defeated it and interrupted the communication between Shumla and Adrianople.

Although the commander-in-chief now had no more than 25 thousand on hand, due to the friendly disposition of the local population and the complete demoralization of the Turkish troops, he decided to move to Adrianople, counting by his appearance in the second capital of the Ottoman Empire to force the Sultan to peace.

After intensified transitions, the Russian army approached Adrianople on August 7, and the surprise of its arrival so embarrassed the head of the local garrison that he offered to surrender. The next day, part of the Russian troops was brought into the city, where large stocks of weapons and other things were found.

The occupation of Adrianople and Erzurum, the close blockade of the straits and internal turmoil in Turkey finally shaken the Sultan's stubbornness; the plenipotentiaries came to Diebitsch's headquarters to negotiate peace. However, these negotiations were deliberately delayed by the Turks, counting on aid from England and Austria; and meanwhile the Russian army was melting more and more, and danger threatened it from all sides. The embarrassment of the situation even increased when the Skutari Pasha Mustafa, who until then had avoided participating in hostilities, now led a 40,000-strong Albanian army to the theater of war.

In mid-August, he occupied Sophia and advanced the vanguard to Philippopolis. Diebitsch, however, was not embarrassed by the difficulty of his position: he announced to the Turkish plenipotentiary that he would give them a deadline until September 1 to receive final instructions, and if after that peace was not concluded, then hostilities on our side would resume. To reinforce these demands, several detachments were sent to Constantinople and communication was established between them and the squadrons of Greig and Heyden.

Adjutant General Kiselev, who commanded the Russian troops in the principalities, was ordered to leave part of his forces to guard Wallachia, with the rest to cross the Danube and move against Mustafa. The offensive of Russian troops to Constantinople had its effect: the alarmed Sultan begged the Prussian envoy to go as an intermediary to Diebitsch. His arguments, supported by letters from other ambassadors, prompted the commander-in-chief to stop the movement of troops to the Turkish capital. Then the authorized Ports expressed their consent to all the conditions they proposed, and on September 2, the Treaty of Adrianople was signed.

Despite the fact, Mustafa Skutarii continued his offensive, and in early September his vanguard approached Husky, and from there moved to Demotic. The 7th corps was sent to meet him. Meanwhile, Adjutant General Kiselev, having crossed the Danube at Rakhov, went to Gabrov to flank the Albanians, and Geismar's detachment was sent through Orhanie to threaten their rear. Having defeated the side detachment of the Albanians, Geismar occupied Sofia in mid-September, and Mustafa, having learned of this, returned to Philippopolis. Here he stayed part of the winter, but after the complete devastation of the city and its environs, he returned to Albania. The detachments of Kiselev and Geismar already at the end of September withdrew to Vratsa, and at the beginning of November the last troops of the Russian main army set out from Adrianople.

In Asia

In the Asian theater of war, the 1829 campaign of the year began in a difficult situation: the inhabitants of the occupied regions were every minute ready for a mutiny; already at the end of February, a strong Turkish corps surrounded Akhaltsykh, and the Trapezunt Pasha with an eight-thousand-strong detachment moved to Guria to assist the uprising that broke out there. The detachments expelled by Paskevich managed, however, to drive the Turks away from Akhaltsykh and from Guria.

But in the middle of May, the enemy undertook offensive actions on a larger scale: the Erzurum seraskir Haji-Salekh, having collected up to 70 thousand, decided to go to Kars; the trapezunt pasha with 30 thousand was to invade Guria again, and the van pasha was to take Bayazet. Paskevich, notified of this, decided to warn the enemy. Gathering about 18 thousand with 70 guns, he crossed the Saganlug mountain range, on June 19 and 20, defeated the troops of Gakki Pasha and Haji Saleh at the Kainly and Millidut tracts, and then approached Erzerum, which surrendered on June 27. At the same time, the Van Pasha, after 2 days of desperate attacks on Bayazet, was repulsed, retreated, and his hordes scattered. The actions of the referee pasha were also unsuccessful; Russian troops were already on their way to Trebizond and captured the Bayburt fortress.

The most striking episodes of the war

• The feat of the brig "Mercury"

War heroes

• Alexander Kazarsky - captain of the brig "Mercury"

Results of the war