Territory and population of the Russian Empire in early 19th century

At the beginning of the 19th century. The territory of Russia amounted to more than 18 million km2, and the population is 40 million people. The Russian empire ᅟ was a single territory.
The bulk of the population is in the central and western provinces; On the territory of Siberia - just over 3 million people. And in the Far East, the development of which ᅟ was just beginning, deserted lands extended.
The population differed on national, estate and religious affiliation.
Peoples of the Russian Empire: Slavic (Russian, Ukrainians, Belarusians); Turkic (Tatars, Bashkirs, Yakuts); Finno-Ugors (Mordva, Komi, Udmurts); Tongussian (EVENA and Evenki) ...
More than 85% of the population of the country professed Orthodoxy, a significant part of the peoples - Tatars, Bashkirs, and others - were followers of Islam; Kalmyks (Low Globes) and Buryats (Transbaikalia) adhered to Buddhism. Many peoples of the Volga region, the North and Siberia retained pagan beliefs.
At the beginning of the 19th century. The Russian Empire includes countries of Transcaucasia (Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia), Moldova, Finland.
The territory of the empire shared on the province, counties and parish.
(In the 1920s, the province in Russia was transformed into the edges and regions, the counties - to the districts; parliament - rural areas, the smallest administrative-territorial units, were abolished during the same years). In addition to the provinces, there were several governorate-general, including one or more provinces or regions.

Political system

The Russian Empire, the entire 19th century remained an autocratic monarchy. The following conditions were followed: the Russian emperor was obliged to confess Orthodoxy and get the throne as a legal heir.
In the hands of the emperor, all power in the country was focused. At his disposal was a huge number of officials who, in aggregate, were a great strength - bureaucracy.
The population of the Russian Empire was divided into class: non-detrunities (nobility, clergy, merchants) and submitted (meshness, peasantry, Cossacks). Belonging to the estate was inherited.

The most privileged position in the state occupied the nobility. The most important privilege was the right to ownership of serfs.
Smallopomy (less than 100 shower of peasants), the overwhelming majority;
Large competition (over 1 thousand shower of peasants) there were approximately 3,700 families, but they had half of all the fortress peasants. Among them were stood with Sheremetev, Yusupov, Vorontsov, Gagarins, Golitsyn.
In the early 1830s, 127 thousand noble families were numbered in Russia (about 500 thousand people); Of these, 00 thousand families were the owners of serfs.
The composition of the nobility was replenished at the expense of representatives of other class groups who managed to advance by service. Many nobles led the traditional lifestyle described by Pushkin in the novel "Eugene Onegin". At the same time, quite a few young nobles sang under the influence of the ideas of the enlightenment, the sentiments of the Great French Revolution.
At the beginning of the 19th century. The free economic society founded in 1765 continued. It united major practitioners, naturalists, retracting them into solving economic problems, announcing competitive tasks (preparation of beets, tobacco production in Ukraine, improving the treatment of peat, etc.
However, Barskaya psychology and the opportunity to enjoy cheap fortress work limited business manifestations in the noble environment.

Clergy.

The privileged estate was the clergy.
At the beginning of the 18th century. The nobility was forbidden to join the spiritual estate. Therefore, the Russian Orthodox clergy in social terms - in the overwhelming majority - stood closer to the lower layers of the population. And at 19 in. The clergy remained a closed layer: the children ᅟ priests were trained in the Orthodox diocesan schools, seminary, married the daughters of the people of the spiritual title, continued the case of fathers - the service in the church. Only in 1867 to enter the seminary was allowed the young men of all classes.
Part of the clergy received state salary, but most priests existed due to the pleasants of believers. The lifestyle of the rural priest was little difference from the life of the peasant.
The community of believing small territories was called the arrival. Several parishes were a diocese. The territory of the diocese, as a rule, coincided with the provincial. The highest organ of church administration was the Synod. Its members were appointed by the emperor from among the bishops (the heads of the Diocese), and the newsletter stood a secular official - Ober-Prosecutor.
The centers of religious life were monasteries. The Trinity-Sergiyev, Alexander Nevsky Lavra, Optina Desert (in the Kaluga province), etc. Posted on Ref.rf is especially honored.

Merchants.

Mercury depending on the size of the capital was divided into closed groups - Guild:
The merchants of the 1st Guild had a predominant right to conduct foreign trade;
The merchants of the 2nd Guild led a major internal trade;
The merchants of the 3rd Guild were engaged in small urban and county trade.
Mercury was freed from the filings, corporal punishments; On the merchants of the first two guilds did not spread the recruit meal.
The merchants either invested their capital and produced, or allowed to "benogenous things."
Merchants prevailed among the Russian bourgeoisie: merchants - wealthy peasants who received special "tickets" to the right to trade. In the future, a merchant or a rich peasant could become a manuff trainer or a manufacturer who invests its capital into industrial production.

Craftsmen, small traders, home shops and restaurants, employees belonged to an unprivileged class - mesh. In the 17th century They were called landing people. Promenban was paid by grades, put recruits into the army and could be subjected to corporal punishments. Many breasts (artists, singers, tailors, shoemakers) joined Artel.

Peasants.

The most numerous estate was the peasantry, to which more than 85% of the country's population.
Peasants:
State (10 - 15 million) - stateless, that is, belonged to the treasury, considered "free rural ordinary people", but who carried out natural subsidy in favor of the state;
Landlord (20 million) - owned, serfs;
Specific (0.5 million) - belonging to the royal family (felt lifts and government anemas).
But what category the peasants treat, their work was hard, especially in summer, during field work.
Half of all peasants constituted landlords (serfs) peasants. The landowner could sell them, to give, pass by inheritance, impose on them a duty at their own discretion, dispose of the property of peasants, regulate marriages, punish, link to Siberia or donate out of turn into recruits.
Most of all serfs numbered in the central provinces of the country. It was not at all the serfs in the Arkhangelsk province, in Siberia from the number barely exceeded 4 thousand people.
Most of the landlord peasants of the Central Industrial Gubniy paid the lifts. And in the agricultural areas of the Black Earth and Volga provinces, in Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine - almost all landlord peasants were worked out by the Barchina.
In search of earnings, many peasants left the village: they were engaged in crafts, others went on manufactory.
There was a process of stratification of the peasantry. Gradually allocated independent peasants: the usurists, buyers, merchants, entrepreneurs. The number of this village top was still insignificant, but its role is great; The rustic rustic rogue often held a whole district in Kabal. In the treasury village, the bundle manifested more than in the landlock, and in the landowner - stronger among the rural peasantry and weaker among the bargaining.
At the end of 18 - at the beginning of the 19th century. In the midst of the fortress peasants, entrepreneurs were distinguished, subsequently those who became the Dynasties of the famous manufacturers: Morozov, Huchkov, Malini, Ryabushinsky.
Peasant community.
In the 19th century, primarily in the European part of Russia, the peasant community was preserved.
The community (peace) seemed to be rented by the owner (landlord, treasury, specific departments) land, and the peasants-community users used it. The field sections of the peasants received equal (in terms of the number of eaters of each yard), while they were not given a land share on women. In order to observe ᅟ equality, the periodic redistributes of the Earth have obedient (for example, in the Moscow province, redistributes were accomplished 1 - 2 times in 20 years).
The main document proceeding from the community was the "verdict" - the decision of the peasant gathering. The gathering on which Men-Communities gathered, solved the issues of land use, choosing the headman, the appointment of guardian of the orphans and others. Neighbors helped each other and difficulty and money. The fortress peasants depended from the barin, and from the barbecue. They were "connected by hand and legs."
Cossacks.
A speciallysis group was Cossacks, which not only carried military service, but also engaged in agriculture.
Already in the 18th century The government fully subordinate to the Cossack Volinets. Cossacks were enrolled in a separate military estate, which were attributed to individuals from other classes, most often - state peasants. The authorities have formed new Cossack troops for the protection of borders. By the end of the 19th century. In Russia, there were 11 Cossack troops: Don, Teresk, Ural, Orenburg, Kuban, Siberian, Astrakhan, Zabaikalskoye, Amur, Semirechensk and Ussuriyskoye.
Due to revenues from his farm, the Cossack was to completely "gather" for military service. He served with his horse, outfit and cold weapons. At the head of the troops stood ᅟ Optical (appointed) Ataman. Each village (village) was elected by the Stanic Ataman. Ataman of all Cossack troops was considered the heir to the throne.

Socio-economic development of the country.

By the end of the 18th century. In Russia, the domestic market is formed; Foreign trade becomes more and more active. The serfdom, drawn into market relations, is modified. Until ᅟ as long as it was natural, the needs of the landowners were limited by the fact that it was produced on their fields, vegetable groceries, livestock courtyards, etc. Operation of the peasants had clearly indicated limits. When it became a real opportunity to turn the products produced in the goods and get money, the needs of the local nobility begin to grow uncontrollably. The landowners rebuild their farm ᅟ so as to maximize its productivity by traditional, serfdom.
In the black earth areas that gave excellent yields, the enhancement of operation was expressed in expanding the Bark scarce through the peasant posts and the increase in the barbecue. But this rooted the peasant economy. After all, the peasant handled the land in the land, using his inventory and his cattle, and he himself represented value as an employee's insight, because he was full, Silen, healthy. The decline of his farm beat and on the economy of the landlord. As a result, after a noticeable lift at the turn of the 18th - 19th centuries. The landowner economy gradually falls into the strip of hopeless stagnation. In the Non-Earth region, the facilities made an increasing profit. Therefore, the landowners were prone to turn their farm. Strengthening the exploitation of peasants was expressed here in a constant increase in cash loss. Moreover, it is often a lifestyle, it was established above the real profitability of the Earth allotted by the peasant to use: the landowner was calculated ᅟ to earn its fortress on the expense of fishing, waste - work in factories, manufactory, in various fields of urban economy. These calculations were fully justified: in this region in the first half of the 19th century. Cities are growing, the factory production of a new type is developed, which is widely used by a winsted labor. But attempts to use these conditions to increase the profitability of the farm, led to him self-dispersion: increasing the monetary lifts, the landowners inevitably leave the peasants from the ground, turning them partly in artisans, in part of the voltage workers.
In an even more difficult situation, the industrial production of Russia was. At this time, the decisive role was played inherited from 18 V. Industry of old, fortified ᅟ type. At the same time, she did not have incentives for technical progress: the amount and quality of products were regulated from above; The number of attributed peasants was strictly suitable for the established production volume. The fortress industry was doomed to stagnation.
At the same time, enterprises of other ᅟ type appear in Russia: they are not related to the state, they work on the market, use free-free labor. Such enterprises arise primarily in the light industry, the products of which already have a massive buyer. Their owners are getting rich fisosals; And there are peasants-peasants work here. Behind this production was the future, but the domination of the serf system was shy. The owners of industrial enterprises usually were in the fortress dependence and were forced to be a significant part of the income in the form of a lifestyle to give the owners of landowners; Workers legally and in essence ᅟ them remained the peasants, striving, earning on the lifts, return to the village. The growth of production was hampered by a relatively narrow market of sales, the expansion of which, in turn, was limited to serfs. So, in the first half of the 19th century. The traditional economy system clearly slowed down the development of production and prevented the establishment of new relations in it. The serfdom turned into an obstacle to the normal development of the country.

Lecture, abstract. Russian Empire by the early 19th century, territory, population, socio-economic development of the country. - Concept and species. Classification, essence and features. 2018-2019.

Table of Contents Open Close

1. Russian Empire by the early 19th century, territory, population, socio-economic development of the country.
2. The decomposition and crisis of the feudal-serf system in Russia in the first half of the 19th century.
3. Industrial coup in Russia
4. Paul I: the main directions and results of internal and foreign policy.
5. Palace coup on March 11, 1801 and its features.
6. Liberal period of the reign of Alexander I
7. Project of state transformations M.M. Speransky.
8. Internal policy of Russia 1801-1825.
9. Decembrist movement
10. Social and political thought of Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century: conservative and liberal directions.
11. Revolutionary public thought of "Nikolaev" Russia. Slavophiles and Westerners
12. Social and political life of Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century in the assessments of domestic and foreign historiography.
13. The main directions and results of Russia's foreign policy in the first quarter of the 19th century.
14. Patriotic War of 1812: the reason, the move, the results, historiography.
15. Caucasian problem in the 19th century Russian politics.
16. Crimean War 1853-1856.
17. "Nikolaevskaya Russia": features of domestic political development.
18. Foreign Policy of Nicholas I: Eastern and European Direction.
19. The peasant question in Russia is the first half of the 19th century.
20. Cancel of serfdom in Russia
20.1 Results and consequences Cancellation of serfdom
21. Reforms of Zemsky and City Self-Government in Russia and their results
22. Judicial reform: Preparation, ideas, results.
23. Military reforms of the 70s of the 19th century in Russia.
24. Peasant reform of 1861 in domestic and foreign historiography.
25. Socio - economic development of Russia of the Empire in the flag.
26. Social and political movement in the pureformal period.
27. Internal policy of the Russian Empire in 1881-1894. Alexander III and its estimates in historiography.
28. Foreign policy of the Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th century. Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878.
29. Foreign policy of the Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th century. Central Asian and Far Eastern regions.

In the 1720s. The distinction between Russian and Chinese possessions in the Burinsky and Kyakhta contracts of 1727 in the areas adjacent to, as a result of the Persian campaign of Peter I (1722-1723), the border of Russian possessions temporarily embraced all the Western and Caspian territories of Persia. In 1732 and 1735 In connection with the exacerbation of Russian-Turkish relations, the Russian government interested in the Union with the Persia gradually returned to her the Caspian land.

In 1731, Russian citizenship voluntarily accepted nomadic Kyrgyz Caisaki () of the younger Jus, and in the same 1731 and in 1740. - Middle Jus. As a result, the Empire includes the territory of the entire Eastern Caspian Sea, the prialaly, the presences and the priests. In 1734, the Zaporizhia Sch will be adopted again.

In 1783, the St. George Treaty was concluded with the kingdom of Kartil-Kakheti (Eastern) on the voluntary recognition of the Russian Protectorate on It.

In the West, the main territorial acquisitions were associated with three sections (1772, 1793, 1795). Prussia and Austria intervention in the internal affairs of Poland led to its division in 1772, in which Russia was forced to participate in the protection of the interests of the Orthodox population of Western Ukraine and. Part of the Eastern Belarus (through the Dnipro line) and part of the Liflandia were departed to Russia. In 1792, Russian troops again joined the territory of the Commonwealth for the call of the Targovitsky Confederation. As a result of the Second Section of Poland produced in 1793, the right-bank Ukraine and part of Belarus (with Minsk) were departed. The third section of the Commonwealth Speech (1795) led to the elimination of independence of the Polish state. Kurland, Lithuania, part of Western Belarus and Volyn moved to Russia.

In the south-east of Western Siberia in the XVIII century. It was a gradual progress to the south: to the upper reaches of Irtysh and Obi with his tributaries (Altai and Kuznetsk Basin). According to Russian possessions, covered the top course of Yenisei, excluding the origins themselves. Further east the limits of Russia in the XVIII century. Defined the border with the Chinese Empire.

In the middle and second half of the century of ownership of Russia, according to the right of the opening, they covered the South Alaska, open in 1741 by the expedition of V. I. Bering and A. I. Chirikov, and the Aleutian Islands, attached in 1786

Thus, during the XVIII century, the territory of Russia increased to 17 million km2, and the population from 15.5 million people. In 1719 to 37 million people in 1795

All these changes in the territory, as well as the development of the state-owned device of the Russian Empire, were accompanied (and in some cases were preceded) intensive studies - before and most topographic and generalographical.

In the XIX century, as in the previous century, the state territory of our Fatherland continued to change mainly towards expansion. The territory of the country in the first fifteen years of the XIX century. As a result of Wars with Turkey (1806-1812), (1804-1813), Sweden (1808-1809), France (1805-1815).

The beginning of the century is significant expansion of the possessions of the Russian Empire. In 1801, the Kartli-Kakhetian kingdom (Eastern Georgia) has voluntarily joined Russia, before that since 1783, which was under the Protectorator of Russia.

The union of Eastern Georgia with Russia contributed to the existence of the Western German Principles in Russia following this voluntary entry: Megrelia (1803), Imereti and Guria (1804). In 1810, Abkhazia and Ingushetia voluntarily joined Russia. However, the seaside fortresses of Abkhazia and Georgia (Sukhum, Anacliai, Redu-Kale, Poti) were held by Turkey.

By the Bucharest Peace Treaty with Turkey in 1812, the Russian-Turkish War was completed. Russia kept in his hands all areas before r. Arpachai, Adjara Mountains and. Only Anapa was returned to Turkey. On the other side of Black received Bessarabia with the cities of Khotyn, Bender, Akkerman, Kilia and Izmail. The border of the Russian Empire was installed on a bar before, and then in the Kyilian Danube to the Black Sea.

As a result of the war with Iran, Russia joined the North-Chamber Hunts: Ganjanskoye (1804), Karabakh, Shirvan, Sheki (1805), Cuban, Baku, Derbent (1806), Talysh (1813), and in 1813 the Gulistan Peace Treaty was signed, For which Iran recognized the accession to Russia of Northern Azerbaijan, Dagestan, East Georgia, Imereti, Guria, Megrelia and Abkhazia.

Russian-Swedish war 1808-1809 He ended with the accession to Russia of Finland, which was announced by the manifesto Alexander I in 1808 and was approved by the Friedrichsgam peace treaty 1809. The territory of Finland was deployed to Russia. Kemi, including the Aland Islands, Finnish and part of Westerbotten Province to P. Torno. Further, the border was installed on the Tornoo and Munio rivers, then north along the Munionist-Enonteki-Kilpyarvi line to the border with. In these borders, the territory of Finland, which received the status of the Autonomous Grand Principality of Finland, preserved until 1917.

According to the Tilzit peace treaty with France in 1807, Russia received the Belostok district. The Shenbrun Mirny Treaty of 1809 between Austria and France led to the transfer of the Tarnopol region to Austria. And, finally, the Vienna Congress 1814-1815, who completed the coalition war of the European powers with Napoleonic France, consolidated the separation between Russia, Prussia and Austria of the Great Duchy of Warsaw, most of which, which received the status of the Kingdom of Polish, became part of Russia. At the same time, the Tarnopol region was returned to Austria.

In the 60-70 years of the XIX century, structural transformations of the estate, administrative and legal institutions were carried out, which led to the modernization of the political system and were mentioned therefore by contemporaries "Great Reforms" Alexander II. The country entered this path, firstly, as a result of a challenge, "abandoned" to her quick-developing Europe, and, secondly, under the influence of the crisis of the Nikolaev system.

By the middle of the century, many objective prerequisites have accumulated for the root agricultural reform. First, the landowner, the farm, based on the off-economic coercion of the peasants to work, was increasingly experiencing a crisis state, the efficiency of farms declined, the question of the transition from natural to market economy was sharper. Secondly, the rapid development of industry was contradicted with feudal relations in agriculture. Thirdly, the country painfully experienced defeat in the Crimean War, which was the result of a military and technical lag from the advanced countries of the world. Fourthly, an increasing number of peasant anti-refortion performances were recorded in the country, which could not worry the leadership of the country. In 1856, Alexander II uttered the famous words: "It is better to cancel the serfdom from above, how to wait for it to be abolished from below," because it was afraid that it could be removed as an unable to king. This forced Alexander II to think about further steps, but the most difficult was to convince the landowners to make significant transformations,

Alexander II statement about the alleged abolition of serfdom literally stipulated public opinion in the country. Starting from January 1857, various commissions and committees began to be created in the government for developing measures "on the device of life of landlord peasants." The attitude of the landowners themselves to the impending change was ambiguous. Most of them belonged to the upcoming reform negatively, believing that the peasants are not ready to live independently, without landlord guard and control. Documents that were prepared by 1860 were the result of a compromise between various groups of nobles and governments that take into account the objective requirements of the country's economic and political development.

February 19, 1861 Alexander II signed Manifesto on the liberation of peasants. On the same day, the king signed and "Regulations on the peasants who came out of the fortress dependence", I included 17 legislative acts and the strength of the law. In accordance with the manifesto, all the fortress peasants from now on received personal freedom and civil rights. They could enter into various property and civil transactions, to open their own enterprises in trade and industry, go to other estates, to leave for other settlements of the country, marriage without the consent of the landowner, etc.

In the country installed election peasant self-government - Rural and volost gatherings (meetings), where rural elders and volost elders were elected. The volost peasant court was introduced on property claims and labum crimes. By the court decision, the peasants could distribute community land among themselves, set the order and volume of obligations, etc. In most areas of Russia, who touched the agrarian reform (and this happened only in those provinces where landowner landowge), the land passed from landlords not to a separate peasant farm, but the rural community as a whole, where it was distributed by the number of peasant yards by quantity Male shower. Within the community, the peasants were not the owners of the Earth, but only its temporary users. The community retained the rules of a circular order.

In accordance with the law, the peasants became largely addicted to the rural community, without the consent of which they could not freely dispose of their posts, to leave the village. The community form of land use served as an explicit brake on the path of progress, restrained the process of differentiation of peasant farms and penetration of market relations to the village.

In fact, the peasants redeemed not only land plots, but also their personal freedom. The calculated amounts of redemption payments for the overwhelming part of the peasants were simply colossal, and they could not immediately repay them. 80% of the repurchase of the landowners reimbursed the state in the form of securities at 5% of the annual income. This 80% amount of the peasants were to pay the state within 49 years.

It should be emphasized that 20% of the redemption payments for the peasants were a huge amount. The payment of them was dragged for many years. The response of the peasants to the law on release was sharply negative. In 1861, a wave of peasant protest rolled around the country against the conditions on which they were released on the equity.

The reform of 1861 meant that the era of feudalism in Russia ended, but his remnants remained for many years as the reality of the country's economic life. This manifested that the landowners not only retained huge land tenure, but also selected a part of the best lands at the community, while the bulk of the peasants was experiencing land hunger. At the same time, the abolition of serfdom was a progressive step. She contributed to the development of new economic relations not only in the village, but also throughout the national economy of the country.

Following the agricultural reform in Russia, other transformations were carried out, primarily in the area of \u200b\u200blocal self-government, the need for all was obvious. The fact is that before Alexander II, all authorities of self-government in Russia had a class. The development of market relations encouraged the Government to hold reforms to create all-known management structures in order to transform the feudal monarchy to bourgeois to adapt Russia's political system to new economic conditions.

One of the most important was the reform of local self-government, known as zemskoy reform. January 1, 1864 was published "Regulations on the provincial and county disease institutions "In accordance with which the nonsense elected local government bodies were formed - zemstvo elected by all estates for three years. Zemstvo consisted of administrative bodies (county and provincial Zemsky assemblies) and executive (county and provincial landfills).

Zemstvo had the right to hire land doctors, teachers, land surveyors and other employees. For the content of Zemskie employees there were certain taxes from the population. Substitutional services included a wide variety of local services: the construction and operation of roads, post office, public education, health care, social protection of the population, mutual insurance, etc. All Zemsky institutions were under the control of local and central authorities - the Governor and the Minister of the Interior. The narrowness of the social base of urban self-government and tough control over him from the provincial presence was reforming limited. But in general, for Russia, the creation of a local government system in the form of zemstvas played a positive role in solving diverse problems at the local level.

Following the Zemstvo reform in the country and urban reform. In accordance with the "urban position" (1870) in 509 cities, a system of urban elected self-government was established. Instead of those who existed previously estate urban administrations in the cities began to be chosen by the city Duma, headed by the city council. The urban head was simultaneously chairman of the city council and the city council. Not all citizens possessed the election law, but only those that correspond to sufficiently high property census: rich homeowners, merchants, industrialists, bankers, officials. The competence of the city council and administration included economic issues: improvement, proceal, local trade, health, education, sanitary and fire protection of the population.

Starting from 1864 in the country judicial reformAccording to which a non-union, a vowed court with the participation of jury, a lawyer and competition of the parties was approved. A unified system of judicial institutions was created, based on the formally equality before the law of all social groups of the population. And within the province, which made up the judicial district, a district court was created. The Chamber united several judicial districts. As a rule, the decisions of the district court and court chambers with the participation of jury were considered final and could be appealed only if the procedure for legal proceedings was broken. The highest cassation is the Senate, who made appeals on court decisions. To analyze minor offenses and civil lawsuits up to 500 rubles. The world court existed in counties and cities. World judges were chosen at the county Zemsky meetings.

The chairmen and members of the district courts and court chambers were approved by the emperor, and the world judges were a Senate, and after that they could not be fired and even temporarily removed from office, that is, the principle of displaceability of judges was introduced. The new judicial system corresponded to the level of advanced European countries. Its administration led to the essence of the allocation of the judiciary in Russia, when only the right of pardon remained behind the emperor. But the judicial reform did not affect many national outlets.

In the 1860s passed and reform Education. In the cities, initial folk schools were created, along with classical gymnasiums, real schools began to function, in which more attention was paid to the study of mathematics, natural sciences, obtaining practical skills in the technique. In 1863, the University Charter of 1803 was recreated, cut during the reign of Nikolai I, according to which partial autonomy of universities, the election of rectors and deans, etc. was reinforced. In 1869, the first women's educational institutions were created in Russia - the highest women's courses with university programs. In this regard, Russia went ahead of many European countries.

In the 1860-1870s in Russia was held military reformThe need for which was due primarily to the defeat in the Crimean War. At first, military service was reduced to 12 years. In 1874, the recruit set was canceled and a universal military service was established, which was distributed to all the men's population that has reached 20 years of age, without class differences. A call to the actual service was not subject to the only son of the parents, the only breadwinner in the family, as well as the youngest son, if the eldest is in military service or has already served his term. The recruits from the peasants were taught not only to the military case, but also a diploma, which felt the lack of school education in the village.

Analyzing the reforms of Alexander II, it should be noted that not all that was conceived in the early 1860s, managed to implement. Many reforms turned out to be limited, inconsistent or remained unfinished. And yet they should be called truly "great reforms", which were of great importance for the subsequent development of all parties to Russia's life. In the history of Russia, it was so that none of the reforms that thought and were conducted in the country were not communicated comprehensively and consistently to a logical completion. Moreover, unfinished transformations were complicated by various counterformations, and then sometimes it was sometimes started first.

In the morning, a few hours before his death, Alexander II appointed a meeting of the State Council to discuss the project, called the "Constitution" M.T. Loris Melikova. But the death of the emperor prevented realizing these plans, the transition to the policy of counter-reviews was historically proseced. Russia was in front of the choice - either the continuation of bourgeois-liberal reforms up to the restructuring of the entire system of public relations, or, compensating the costs of strengthening the estimated and imperial foundations of statehood, take a course on deep economic transformations.

The period of the reign of Alexander II was the last in the history of Imperial Russia, during which the violent accession of significant territories occurred. For several decades, Russia carried out an offensive on Central Asia, which began in Nicolae I was an unsuccessful campaign at Khiva in 1839. Only after the complete accession to Kazakhstan in the 1850s, Russia was able to start a planned offensive on the Kokand, Bukhara and Khiva Khanate. This was undertaken under the pressure of complex geopolitical contradictions between Russia and England, which claimed its presence in Central Asia. For Russia, moreover, an extensive market for industrial goods and a source of cotton raw materials for the textile industry was needed, since the bulk of raw cotton (up to 90%) came from the United States. But in the middle of the XIX century, due to the civil war in this country, the flow of American cotton almost ceased, and the cotton industry of Russia was in a difficult situation. After joining Central Asia, the basic needs in cotton raw materials Russia began to satisfy due to internal production.

Military actions in Central Asia were conducted for many years, as Russian troops met the fierce resistance there. In 1867, the Turkestan Governor-General was formed with the center in Tashkent, which entered Bukhara and Kokand, and in 1873 and Khiva. In the same period, Russia was more than once "in the hairs from the war" with England, with which in the end an agreement was concluded on the demarcation of spheres of influence (1885). Control of England remained Afghanistan and Tibet, and Russia is Central Asia.

During the reign of Alexander II, it was finally allowed and the so-called "Caucasian question". And although at the beginning of the XIX century, most of the Transcaucasia joined Russia, the North Caucasus (except for Kabarda and Ossetia) was still independent. Nearly 50 years old - from 1817 to 1864 - the Caucasian War lasted, stretching the peoples of Dagestan, Circassia, Chechnya, Adygea, and Russia itself many forces and victims. More than 100 peoples of the North Caucasus were included in the empire by brutally suppressing their resistance.

In 1850-1860, Russia acquired significant territories in the Far East. Since China in 1857 had great complications in relations with England and France, Russia took advantage of this and introduced troops to the Amur region on the left bank of the river. Amur. The troops were led by the Governor General of Eastern Siberia N.N. Amur Muravyev. China has signed with Russia in 1858, the Aigan Agreement, according to which he was inferior to the Amur region of Russia. Under the contract of 1860, prisonered in Beijing, the Ussuri region (Primorye Region) was joined to Russia, where settlements and cities and cities were very quickly emerged: Blagoveshchensk, Khabarovsk, Nikolaevsk - on Amur, Vladivostok. In Primorye, the flow of Russian immigrants for the colonization of new territories.

In the 1850-1870s, the ownership of Japan and Russia in the Far East occurred. As a result of the sea blockade of 1854-1855 in the city of Simoda, an agreement was concluded between Russia and Japan "On peace and friendship", through which the Kuril Islands, except for the southern group, was announced by Russian. Sakhalin Island proclaimed the joint ownership of the two countries. Despite the fact that they mastered these territories Russian discoverers. But in 1875 there was a revision of this contract, as a result of which all Sakhalin became only Russian possession, but all the Kuril Islands were recovered to Japan, which was confirmed by the Russian-Japanese Agreement on Maritime in 1895. And yet the relations of the two countries remained quite tense, which turned out later in the Russian-Japanese war at the beginning of the 20th century.

In the 1860s, diplomatic relations with the United States were established, mutual friendly relations were maintained between the countries. For several years, the issue of selling the United States of Russian possessions in North America was discussed, since it was harder for Russia, it was more difficult to protect these remote areas, and the costs of their content exceeded their income. After the end of the civil war in the United States, these negotiations were intensified, and Russia, experiencing financial difficulties, agreed in 1867 for the sale of Alaska and its other American territories of over 1.5 million square meters. KM totaling $ 7.2 million, or 14 million rubles.

Alexander III, fearing the escalation of the revolutionary movement, conducted a number of events (the so-called "Reforms inside out"). So, the government began to actively support landlords to prevent their ruin. A special noble bank was organized, whose capital was several times more than the means of the peasant bank.

In order to limit the action of many liberal laws, "temporary regulations on the press" (1882) were introduced, which established a strict administrative supervision of newspapers and magazines. Many liberal and radical publications were closed. In 1887, a circular on the "kitchen kits", according to which in the gymnasium it was forbidden to take children of Kucher, Laceyev, Prachki, small shopkeepers and the like people, in 1884 there was actually eliminated by the autonomy of universities.

In 1889, "Regulations on the Zemstvo Chiefs" were published, according to which the Zemsky bosses were charged to carry out supervision and control over the activities of peasant rural and volost institutions, remove the rural elder and volost elders from the post, subjected to corporal punishments and arrest any peasants, etc.

In accordance with various documents of the 1880-1890s, the election representative of the peasants in the provincial and county facilities, and the voting rights of the urban population was cut off by increasing the property qualification. At the same years, attempts were made to limit the judicial reform of 1864-1870. Many events failed to implement, but a noticeable slowdown in the course of Alexander II occurred.

The main feature of the economic life of the Foreign Russia was the rapid development of the market economy. Although this process was emerged in the bowels of serfdom, it was the reforms of the 1860-1870s that opened a wide street with new socio-economic relations, allowed them to establish themselves in the economy as a dominant system, "Great Reforms" Alexander II gave the opportunity to break feudal relations not only Selo, but also in the whole national economy as a whole, to complete the industrial coup, form new social groups characteristic of a market economy. This transient process was complicated by the presence of a rather backward political system - the absolutist autocracy and the estate structure of society, which led to contradictory and painful events at the turn of the centuries.

The remnants of serfdom, preserved in the column period, after 1861, made it difficult to develop market relations in agriculture. Huge redemption payments with a heavy burden lay on millions of peasants. As a result of all this, the rise of agriculture was slow and with great difficulties.

And yet in the 1880-1890s, market relations penetrated into the agricultural sector. It was noticeable of several signs: there was a social differentiation of the peasant population, the essence of the landlord was changed, the orientation of specialized farms and regions increased. Zemskoy statistics already in the 1880s showed a significant property bundle of peasants. First of all, the layer of prosperous peasants was folded, whose farms consisted of their own posts and putors of impoverished communities. From this layer, the fists were distinguished from the entrepreneurial economy.

During the reign of Alexander III, Russia goes to the first place in the world in terms of industrial production growth. This largely contributed to the expansion of public and foreign investments in the extractive and metallurgical industry, the construction of railways. In 1882, legislation on the work begins to form, the foundations of non-state pension and social insurance began to be forced. At the same time, the world's leading powers have already completed industrialization, Russia continued to go through the country of "catching capitalism".

Nevertheless, certain layers of society were unhappy with the existing position of things - a political regime, inconsistency in solving the peasant question, which caused various ideological and political trends to life.

Petrols - Democratic movement of 70-80x. The XIX century, the purpose of which was the protection of the interests of the peasants, the transition of Russia, bypassing capitalism to socialism. Headed the movement of populists M. Bakunin, P. Lavrov, P. Tkachev. These three leaders offered each theory of changes in Russian society. The tasks of their activities M. Bakunin ( bunctory Current) I saw in the promotion of revolutionary ideas among the peasants with the aim of organizing a universal revolution and the world revolution. P. Lavrov ( propaganda direction) It believed that the peasantry was not able to rise to the revolution, advocated the enlightenment of the people, explaining the peasantry of revolutionary ideas. P. Tkachev and his supporters ( conspiratorial direction) Offered a conspiracy organization with the aim of seizing the board in the country. The leading role was assigned to the revolutionary intelligentsia.

Despite the differences in the approaches, population theory converged in the question of the need for propaganda among the peasantry, the inevitability of a change in the existing authority by the power of the people, in connection with which population in 1874 organized "walking in the people." However, this promotion did not have success.

In 1876, populists created a secret organization called "Earth and Will". A part of the populists moved to terror. Disagreements in matters and tactics of further struggle led in 1879 to the split organization on the "black redistribution", who advocated propaganda, and "People's Volay" - for terror.

G.V. Plekhanov One of the leaders of "Earth and Will" in 1883 in Geneva created a group "Labor Liberation", whose tasks included the propaganda of the ideas of Marxism and the use of them in Russia. In 1883-84. The first Marxist groups and circles begin to occur in Russia.

Topic number 12.

Russia in the era of the reforms of Alexander II

Part 1 (a)

In what period of the rule of Emperor Alexander II?

1) 1845-1885 3) 1855-1885

2) 1855-1881. 4) 1857-1881

When was the cancellation of serfdom?

What year was the city reform?

1) in 1860 2) in 1865 3) in 1870 4) in 1875

What year began an uprising in Poland?

1) in 1860 2) in 1861. 3) in 1862 4) in 1863

Indicate dates related to the wars of Russia with the Ottoman Empire?

1) 1812, 1853, 1878 3) 1813-1814, 1826-1828, 1826-1828.

2) 1721, 1809, 1873. 4) 1803, 1837-1841, 1861.

6. Specify the dates associated with the public movement:

1) 1825, 1874, 1881 3) 1861, 1864, 1870

2) 1801, 1812, 1835 4) 1814, 1828, 1859

What event occurred in 1879?

1) the state bank was established

2) began "walking in the people"

3) stopped the activities of the organization "Earth and Will"

4) "South-Russian Union of Workers" was formed

8. Name the dates of the final accession to the territories of Central Asia to Russia:

1) 1865-1885. 3) 1875-1890.

2) 1861-1871. 4) 1845-1865.

9. Read the passage from the International Treaty, signed by the representative of Alexander II and name the year of its signing:

"Art.1. His Majesty Emperor All-Russian Slim undertakes to give way to the United States ... all the territory with the supreme ongoing right, as well as the island adjacent to it<...>

Article 6. Based on the above-mentioned concession, the United States is obliged to pay ... a diplomatic representative or other Majesty by the emperor of the All-Russian proper to the authorized person seven million two hundred thousand dollars Gold coin ... "

1) 1878 2) 1867 3) 1855 4) 1849

Who led the military reform?

1) Ya.I. Rostovtsev 2) D.A. Milyutin 3) V.A. Cherkasi 4) F.N. Plevako

Who was the commander-in-chief of the Caucasian army at the last stage of the Caucasian War?

1) P.S. Nakhimov 2) P.I. Bagration 3) P.A. Rumyantsev 4) A.I. Baryatinsky

Who did not apply to the theoretics of militarian?

1) M.N. Ranks 2) P.N. Tkachev 3) P.L. Lavrov 4) MA Bakunin

Is it about the text?

"He believed that the revolutionary had the right to do not care about all moral principles for its purposes, he had the right to deceive everyone, to kill and promote that he was not ordered by any paths, if only they led to his goal; At the same time, he considered favorable and desirable in the interests of the strength of his organization to ensure the opportunity to compromise the loved ones surrounding him in every time. "

1) About N.G. Chernyshevsky 3) About this year Nechaev

2) O A.I. Herzen 4) O A.I. Zhelyabov

What was the found institutions who were preparing the peasant reform?

1) laid commissions 3) secret committees

2) Editorial Commissions 4) Commission on Fastener Law

What were the members of the Zemsky Members?

1) vowels 2) deputies 3) headlights 4) assessors

What term is not related to judicial reform?

1) World Courts 3) juror

2) Lawyers 4) Zemskie Courts

What type of educational institution became the main on the step of secondary education?

1) Lyceum 2) Gymnasium 3) College 4) Folk School

What was the name of the organization whose members killed Emperor Alexander II?

1) "Folk Volya" 3) "Earth and Will"

2) "Black convey" 4) "Union of populists"

What reform is we talking about in the text?

"The chairmanship in the county meeting was transferred to the county leader of the nobility, in the provincial - province," if the sovereign does not want to appoint a special person to presidate it. " But the chairmen of the county and provincial government was granted to choose the meetings themselves. "

1) about the peasant 3) about the military

2) About Zemskoy 4) On the Reform of Enlightenment

What was uncharacteristic for the development of industry in the volatile period?

1) Intensive Railway Construction

2) the growth of urban population

3) export of Russian capital to Western Europe

4) Completion of industrial coup

What characterizes Russia's policies in Central Asia?

1) Russian-English armed conflict in Turkmenistan

2) withdrawal of Russian troops from the territory of the Bukhara Emirate

3) Russia's submission of the Khivinsky Khanate

4) Building the Moscow-Tashkent railway

What does not apply to the results of military reform?

1) Introduction of the Universal Military Meament 3) re-equipment of the army

2) Reducing service life 4) Introduction to the army of the Commissioners

Ppm Skobeliev, I.V. Gurko were famous commander during

1) of the Patriotic War of 1812 3) Crimean War 1853-1856.

2) Russian-Turkish War 1828-1829. 4) Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878.

In the second half of the XIX century. The Russian Empire includes territories

1) Kingdom of Polish and Finland 3) Georgia and Abkhazia

2) Bessarabia and Eastern Armenia 4) of the Khiva and Kokand Khanty

The main territorial acquisitions of the second half of the XIX century. Russia made in the North Caucasus, in Central Asia and the Far East. The surroundings of the North Caucasus became the main result of almost half a century of the Caucasian War (1817-1864). The captive of Imam Shamil in 1859 and the refusal of Adygei tribes from resistance was its last acts.

Promotion to Central Asia has become possible after joining Russia all of Kazakhstan (50s. XIX century). From here, military pressure was deployed on Kokand, Bukhara and Khiva Khanate. By the middle of the 70s. The newly created Turkestan Governor-General with the Center in Tashkent entered the territory of Kokand-Skogo Khanate. Hivinsky Khan lost to Russia in the right bank of Amudarya and, like Bukhara Emir, recognized the Russian Protectorate. In the early 80s. The subordination of the Turkmen tribes included in the Supreme Region. By the 90th. It was possible to negotiate with England, concerned about the success of Russia, about a clear distinction between the spheres of influence and territories in Central Asia. In particular, the Pamir remained behind Russia, and Khiva and Bukhara were dependent on it.

In the Far East, Russia received from China the Amur region (contract 1858) and the Ussuri region (contract 1860). Two treaties with Japan were concluded - in 1855 and 1875. According to the agreement of 1875, Russia received Sakhalin Island, and Japan is the islands of Kuril Ridge. The development of the Far East by Russia took place pretty slowly. The economic and strategic benefits from the possession of a huge edge that had direct access to the Pacific Ocean, the authorities began to be aware of only by the end of the 80s - 90th. The construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway Highway indicated the intentions of Russia to strengthen the Far East seriously and for all.

Russian Empire in the XIX century. It was a multinational and multiconde-confessional power. Its historical and ethnic basis was the Russian people. Russia was an Orthodox monarchy, in which the Russian Orthodox Church occupied the leading positions. It is significant that in a document identifying a person, not his nationality, but religion, was indicated. The largest along with the Russian ethnic groups were in the second half of the XIX century. Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, Tatars, Germans, Bashkirs, Finns, Jews, etc.; Russians professed Orthodoxy, Islam, Catholicism, Protestantism, Buddhism, Judaism.

Successful national policy was an indispensable condition for the stability and integrity of the country. It is extremely difficult to give it a characteristic, it is necessary to say that it was not holistic and had significant features by regions. In addition, the relatively liberal national policy of Alexander II was significantly different from the National Policy of Alexander III, which took the course to Russification.

The maximum autonomy in the development of national culture, language, the customs used Finland; In Central Asia in Russian, only official office work was conducted, in the rest of the rest, the local population adhered to national traditions, rites, beliefs, language. Liberal as a whole was national politics in the Baltic States.

Flexible policies were carried out in respect of the peoples of the Volga region, Transcaucasia, Altai, Yakutia, etc.: Attending them to Russian culture, the central government at the same time introduced a substantial contribution to the formation of the national intelligentsia, the development of writing and language, creating a system of education.

In Ukraine and in Belarus, national policies had a tougher character. Orders were accepted, prohibiting the training literature in Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, the persecutions of the national intelligentsia were subjected to persecution, often accused of separatism and national egoism. There was a situation in Poland, where Russification was recognized as one of the goals of the National Policy.

As for the situation of the Jews, after some of the posts of the 60-70s. (permission for individual categories to live outside the so-called sketch, etc.) measures against them were in the 80-90s. Newly tightened (in particular, prohibitions of state positions were operating, freedom of movement was limited: it was allowed to live only in areas that were part of settling).

Russia in the second half of the XIX century. It was necessary to solve complex national problems, overcome sharp contradictions between the center and the outskirts, nations, which inhabited. But in general, the country lived in the conditions of an interethnic world.