International trade in goods and services general characteristics. International trade in goods and services

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International trade in goods and services

1. The role of international trade in the world economy

trade international pricing multiplier

All countries enter into foreign trade relations. In doing so, each side ends up consuming more than it could produce on its own. This is the essence of international trade.

International trade is a sphere of international commodity-money relations, which is the totality of foreign trade of all countries of the world.

International trade consists of two counter flows of goods - exports and imports - and is characterized by a trade balance and trade turnover.

Export - sale of goods, providing for their export abroad.

Import is the purchase of a product that involves its import from abroad.

Trade balance - the difference between the value of exports and imports ("net exports").

Trade turnover is the sum of the value of exports and imports.

Why do countries trade with each other? Although most theories are built on a national scale, trade decisions are usually made by individual companies, firms. Only when companies see that the opportunities in the international market may turn out to be greater than in the domestic market will they direct their resources to the overseas sector.

Some important features are inherent in world trade:

1. Differences in mobility. International trade acts as a substitute for international resource mobility - if human and material resources cannot move freely between countries, then the movement of goods and services effectively fills this gap.

2. Currency. Each country has its own currency, and this must be taken into account when carrying out export-import operations.

3. Politics. International trade is subject to strong political interference and control.

Export incentives:

1. Use of excess capacity.

2. Reducing the cost per unit of production.

3. Increase in profitability through increased margins (the ability, under certain conditions, to sell their products with greater profit abroad than at home).

4. Distribution of sales risk.

Import incentives:

1. Cheaper supply of goods or raw materials.

2. Expansion of the range.

3. Reducing the risk of interruption in the supply of goods.

Some obstacles to foreign trade can also be highlighted:

Lack of knowledge about the available options,

Lack of information about the mechanics of trading;

Fear of risk;

Trade restrictions.

2. Classical theories of international trade

1. Mercantilist theory

Mercantilism is a direction of economic thought developed by European scientists at the beginning of the 17th century, who emphasized the commodity nature of production (T. Man, V. Petty, and others).

Mercantilists were the first to propose a coherent theory of international trade. They believed that the wealth of countries depends directly on the amount of gold and silver that they have, and believed that the state must necessarily export more goods than import; regulate foreign trade to increase exports and decrease imports; prohibit or severely restrict the export of raw materials and allow duty-free import of raw materials that are not available in the country; to prohibit all trade of the colonies with countries other than the metropolis.

The limitation of the mercantilists is that they could not understand that the development of countries is possible not only by redistributing existing wealth, but also by increasing it.

2. The theory of absolute advantages

The main economist who challenged mercantilism was A. Smith (late 18th century). Smith clearly stated that the benefit

the state of a nation depends not so much on the amount of gold they have accumulated as on their ability to produce final goods and services. Therefore, the main task is not to acquire gold, but to develop production through the division of labor and cooperation.

The theory of absolute advantages argues that international trade is profitable if two countries trade in goods that each country produces at a lower cost than a partner country. Countries export those goods that they produce at a lower cost (in which they have an absolute advantage in production) and import those goods that are produced by other countries at a lower cost (in the production of which their trading partners have the advantage).

Consider the following example. Let's say that manufacturers in Germany and Mexico produce only two products - equipment and raw materials. Labor costs for the production of a unit of goods (in working days) are presented in table 5.

Table 1 Initial data for the analysis of the theory of absolute advantages

	Labor costs (working day)
	Germany
Equipment

Germany has an absolute advantage in the production of equipment, since 1 worker. day< 4 раб. дней. Мексиканские производители имеют абсолютное преимущество в производстве сырья, т. к. 2 раб. дня < 3 раб. дней.

Axiom: if country A needs fewer hours to produce product X than country B, then country A has an absolute advantage over country B in the production of this product and it is profitable for it to export this product to country B. It followed from A. Smith's theory that the factors of production have absolute mobility within the country and move to those regions where they receive the greatest absolute advantage.

3. The theory of comparative advantage

D. Ricardo proved in 1817 that international specialization is beneficial for the nation. This was the well-known theory of comparative advantage, or, as it is sometimes called,

theory of comparative production costs. Let's consider this theory in more detail.

Let's say that the world economy consists of two countries - the United States and Brazil. And each of them can produce both wheat (P) and coffee (K), but with varying degrees of economic efficiency.

Let us highlight the characteristic features of these curves of production possibilities.

1. Costs of countries for the production of P and K are constant.

The production capability lines of the two countries do not coincide - this is due to differences in the structure of resources and levels of technology. That is, the costs of P and C are different for the two countries. In fig. 1a shows that the ratio of costs for P and K for the United States is 1P for 1K - or 1P = 1K. Fig. 1b it follows that for Brazil this ratio is equal to 1P for 2K - or 1P = 2K.

2. If the economies of both countries are closed and independently satisfy their needs for these goods, then the condition of self-sufficiency for the United States is 18P and 12K (point A), and for Brazil - 8P and 4K (point B).

We identified differences in cost ratios. Now the question arises: is there a rule by which you can determine which products the US and Brazil should specialize in? Such a rule exists - this is the principle of comparative advantage: the total volume of output will be greatest when each product is produced by the country in which the opportunity costs are lower. By comparing the domestic costs of these countries for the production of P and C, it can be determined that the United States has a comparative (cost) advantage in the production of P and should specialize in it. Brazil, on the other hand, has a comparative advantage in the production of K and therefore should specialize in it.

Rational economic management - using a certain amount of limited resources to obtain the greatest aggregate output - requires that any good be produced by a country with a lower opportunity cost, or, in other words, with a comparative advantage. In our example, the United States should produce P for the world economy, and Brazil - K.

Analysis of this table shows that specialization of production in accordance with the principle of comparative advantage actually allows the whole world to obtain a greater volume of output for a given amount of resources. By specializing entirely in wheat, the United States can grow 30 P and not grow K at all. Similarly, by specializing entirely in coffee, Brazil can produce 20 K and not grow P.

Table 2 International specialization according to the principle of comparative advantage and gains from trade (conditional data)

However, consumers in both countries will want both wheat and coffee. Specialization gives rise to the need to trade or exchange these two goods. What will be the terms of trade?

Logical reasoning will lead us to the following conclusion: the coefficient of international exchange, or terms of trade, will fall within this inequality:

1 TO< 1П < 2К.

The actual exchange rate depends on the global demand for these two goods and their supply.

Having adopted the international exchange coefficient, or the terms of trade, 1P = 1.5K, we introduce into the analysis, in addition to the line of production opportunities, the line of trade opportunities - Fig. 2.

The Trade Opportunity line shows the choices that a country has when it specializes in one product and exchanges (exports) it to obtain another product. Specialization based on the principle of comparative advantage contributes to a more efficient allocation of world resources and an increase in the production of both P and K, and therefore is beneficial to both the United States and Brazil. As a result of specialization and trade, both countries have more of each type of product (see Table 6). The entire world economy in this case also wins: it will receive 30 P (compared to 18 + 8 = 26 P) and 20 K (compared to 12 + 4 = 16 K), and this is more than in conditions of self-sufficiency or non-specialized production countries.

The fact that points A1 and B1 in Fig. 2 reflect a more perfect situation in comparison with points A and B, it is very important.

Let us recall that any country can go beyond the limits of its production capabilities only by either increasing the quantity and improving the quality of its resources, or by using the results of technological progress. A third way has now been found — international trade — by which the country is able to overcome the narrow production lines constrained by the production opportunity curve.

However, it should be noted that a country cannot endlessly develop specialization in any commodity or product. By increasing the scale of production, the country will surely face rising costs. The most important effect of rising costs is that they set the boundaries of specialization.

4. The theory of the ratio of factors of production

The theory of international trade was also explained through the theory of factors of production. Its authors are E. Heckscher and B. Olin, Swedish economists (mid-1920s). The essence of the theory lies in the Heckscher-Ohlin theorem: each country exports those goods for the production of which it possesses relatively surplus factors of production, and imports those goods for the production of which it experiences a relative lack of factors of production.

In accordance with the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, the difference in the relative prices of goods in different countries, and therefore trade between them, is explained by the different relative endowments of the countries with factors of production.

5. Testing the theory of the ratio of factors of production: Leontiev's paradox

After World War II, V. Leontiev tried to empirically prove or disprove the Heckscher-Ohlin theory. Using the input-output input-output model, built on the basis of data on the US economy for 1947, V. Leontyev showed that relatively more labor-intensive goods prevailed in American exports, while capital-intensive goods prevailed in imports. Considering that in the early post-war years in the United States, unlike most of its trading partners, capital was a relatively surplus factor of production, and the level of wages was significantly higher, this empirically obtained result clearly contradicted what the Heckscher-Ohlin theory assumed. This phenomenon is called the "Leontief paradox". Subsequent studies confirmed the presence of this paradox in the post-war period not only for the United States, but also for other countries (Japan, India, etc.).

The Leontief paradox - the Heckscher-Ohlin theory of the ratio of factors of production is not confirmed in practice: labor-saturated countries export capital-intensive products, while capital-saturated countries export labor-intensive products.

The answer to the "Leontief paradox" is:

in the heterogeneity of factors of production, primarily the labor force, which can differ significantly in terms of qualifications. Therefore, the exports of industrialized countries may reflect a relative surplus of highly skilled labor and specialists, while developing countries export products that require significant costs of unskilled labor;

a significant role of natural resources - raw materials, the extraction of which requires large capital expenditures (for example, in the extractive industries). Therefore, exports from many resource-rich developing countries are capital intensive, although capital in these countries is not a relatively surplus factor of production;

the traditional preferences of Americans to buy capital-intensive technological products made abroad, despite the fact that the country itself is well endowed with capital;

the reverse of factors of production, when the same product can be labor-intensive in a labor-surplus country and capital-intensive in a capital-surplus country. For example, rice produced in the United States with advanced technology is a capital-intensive commodity, while rice produced in labor-surplus Vietnam is labor-intensive because it is produced almost exclusively using manual labor;

influence on the international specialization of the state's foreign trade policy, which can restrict imports and stimulate production within the country and export of products of those industries where relatively scarce factors of production are intensively used.

3. Alternative theories of international trade

The consequences of participation in foreign trade for the national economy were concretized by economists based on the use of the concept of tradable and non-tradable goods and services.

In accordance with this concept, all goods and services are divided into tradable, that is, participating in international exchange (exported and imported), and non-tradable, that is, consumed only where they are produced, and not being an object of international trade. The level of prices for non-tradable goods is formed in the domestic market and does not depend on prices in the world market. In practice, most of the goods and services produced in agriculture, mining and manufacturing are tradable. On the contrary, most of the goods and services produced in the field of construction, transport and communications, utilities, public and personal services are non-tradable.

The division of goods and services into tradable and non-tradable is conditional. This division of goods and services affects the structural shifts in the economy taking place in the country under the influence of the country's participation in world trade. This is due to the fact that the demand for non-tradable goods and services can be satisfied only through domestic production, and the demand for tradable goods and services can also be met through imports.

1. Rybczynski's theorem

The English economist T. Rybchinsky clarified the conclusions of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory of the ratio of factors of production. He proved a theorem according to which, given that world prices remain unchanged and there are only two sectors in the economy, the expansion of the use of excess factor in one of them leads to a reduction in production and output of goods in the other. Consider Rybchinskiy's theorem using a specific example (Fig. 3).

Suppose a country produces two goods: X and Y using two factors of production - capital and labor. Moreover, product X is relatively more labor-intensive, and product Y is relatively more capital-intensive. The vector OF shows the optimal combination of labor and capital based on the use of the most efficient technology in the production of goods X, and the vector OE, respectively, in the production of goods Y. JG capital. In the absence of foreign trade, commodity X is produced in volume F, and commodity Y in volume E.

If a country is involved in international trade, then the production of goods Y in the export sector increases and the surplus factor, capital, is used to a greater extent. This leads to an increase in the used capital on GG1. With the same size of the other factor used - labor - the ratio of production of goods X and Y is shown by the parameters of the new parallelogram.

The production of the exported capital-intensive commodity Y will move to point E1, that is, it will increase by EE1. On the contrary, the production of the more labor-intensive commodity X will move to point F1, that is, it will decrease by FF1. Moreover, the movement of capital to the export-oriented sector leads to a disproportionate increase in the production of goods Y.

2. "Dutch disease"

The concept of tradable and non-tradable goods and Rybchinsky's theorem make it possible to explain the problems that many countries faced in the last decades of the twentieth century, which began to intensively develop new raw export resources: oil, gas, etc., the so-called Dutch disease. This phenomenon owes its name to the fact that in the late 60s and early 70s, the development of natural gas in the North Sea began in Holland with further expansion of its export. Economic resources began to shift to gas production.

As a result, incomes of the population increased, and this led to an increase in demand for non-tradable goods and an increase in their production. At the same time, there was a curtailment of production in traditional export manufacturing industries and an expansion of imports of missing goods.

The subsequent decline in commodity prices triggered a new phase of the Dutch Disease. There was a decrease in the income of the population, a decrease in the production of non-tradable goods, an outflow of resources from the branches of raw materials exports. The positions of the traditional export manufacturing industries have strengthened again. Structural shifts caused by Dutch Disease are creating serious social problems. The "Dutch disease" has struck Norway, Great Britain, Mexico and other countries over the years. The experience of these countries should be taken into account in Russia as well.

3. Michael Porter's theory of competitive advantage of the country

The theory of comparative advantages was further developed in the works of the American economist M. Porter. Based on the analysis of extensive statistical material, M. Porter created an original theory of the country's competitive advantage. The basis of this theory is the so-called "national diamond", which reveals the main determinants of the economy that form the competitive macro-environment in which the firms of this country operate.

The “national diamond” reveals a system of determinants that, interacting, create a favorable or unfavorable environment for the realization of the country's potential competitive advantages.

These determinants are:

The parameters of the factors represent the material and non-material conditions necessary for the formation of the competitive advantage of the country as a whole and its leading export-oriented industries.

Firms' strategy, structure and rivalry play a significant role in ensuring national competitive advantage. If the firm's strategy is not focused on activities in a competitive environment, then such firms usually do not have a competitive advantage in the foreign market.

Demand parameters are, first of all, the capacity of demand, the dynamics of its development, the differentiation of types of products, the demand of buyers for the quality of goods and services. It is in the domestic market that new products must be tested before entering the world market.

Related and supporting industries provide firms in export-oriented industries with the necessary materials, semi-finished products, components, information, and are a prerequisite for creating and maintaining a competitive advantage in world trade for firms in the respective industries.

In the general picture of competitive advantages, M. Porter also assigns a role to chance and government.

4. Development of modern international trade

International trade is one of the leading forms of IEE. The volume of international trade is valued. The nominal value of international trade is usually expressed in US dollars at current prices and therefore is highly dependent on the dynamics of the exchange rate of the dollar against other currencies. The real volume of international trade is the nominal volume converted to constant prices using the chosen deflator. In general, the nominal value of world trade has a general upward trend (see Table 8). In value terms, the volume of world trade in 2000 was $ 12 trillion, which is almost three times less than the value of world GDP ($ 33 trillion).

International trade structure

The structure of international trade is usually considered in terms of its geographical distribution (geographical structure) and commodity content (commodity structure).

The geographic structure of international trade is the distribution of trade flows between individual countries and their groups, distinguished either on a territorial or organizational basis (Table 7).

Table 3 Geographic structure of international trade (growth of international trade by region in 1995-1999, in%)

The main volume of international trade falls on developed countries, although their share decreased slightly in the first half of the 90s due to the growth in the share of developing countries and countries with economies in transition (mainly due to the rapidly developing newly industrialized countries of Southeast Asia - Korea, Singapore , Hong Kong - and some Latin American countries) (Table 8).

Data on the commodity structure of international trade in the world as a whole are very incomplete. Let's note the most significant trends.

Since the beginning of the twentieth century, two "floors" have emerged in the structure of the world market for goods - the market for basic goods (fuel, mineral raw materials, agricultural products, timber) and the market for finished products. The first type of goods was produced by developing and former socialist countries specializing in the export of resource and labor-intensive goods. Out of 132 developing countries, 15 specialize in the export of oil, 43 - in the export of mineral and agricultural raw materials. The goods of the second "floor" are the prerogative of industrially developed countries.

In the second half of the twentieth century, in the context of the rapid development of electronics, automation, telecommunications, biotechnology, the "second floor" was divided into three levels:

1st level - the market for low-tech products (ferrous metallurgy products, textiles, footwear, other light industry products);

2nd level - the market of medium-tech products (machine tools, vehicles, rubber and plastic products, products of basic chemistry and wood processing);

3rd level - the market for high-tech products (aerospace technology, information technology, electronics, pharmaceuticals, precision measuring instruments, electrical equipment).

Place in rate. (1997)

Export, 1997

Import, 1997

Place in rate. (2001)

Export, 2001

Import, 2001

Germany

United Kingdom

Netherlands

South Korea

Singapore

Malaysia

Switzerland

Russia

Australia

Brazil

Indonesia

In the last decade, the third level of the world market for finished goods has been expanding rapidly: its share in the total volume of world exports increased from 9.9% in the early 1980s to 18.4% in the early 1990s.

"Upper Tier 2" is an area of fierce competition between industrialized countries. In the market of medium- and low-tech finished products, NIS is fighting. The number of participants in this struggle is constantly increasing at the expense of the developing and former socialist countries.

According to UN experts, at the end of the twentieth century, 75% of world exports were manufactured products, with Ѕ of this indicator accounted for by technically sophisticated goods and machinery. Food products, including beverages and tobacco, account for 8% of world exports. Mineral raw materials and fuels - 12%. Recently, there has been an increase in the share in world exports of textile products and finished products of the manufacturing industry up to 77%. In addition, the share of services, communications and information technologies has significantly increased.

5. Pricing in world trade. Foreign trade multiplier

A characteristic feature of world trade is the presence of a special price system - world prices. They are based on international production costs, which tend to the world average cost of economic resources for the creation of this type of goods. International production costs are formed under the predominant influence of countries that are the main suppliers of these types of goods to the world market. In addition, the ratio of supply and demand for a given type of product in the world market has a significant impact on the level of world prices.

International trade is characterized by a plurality of prices, that is, the existence of different prices for the same product. World prices differ depending on the time of the year, place, conditions for the sale of goods, and the specifics of the contract. In practice, world prices are the prices of large, systematic and stable export or import transactions concluded in certain centers of world trade by well-known firms - exporters or importers of the corresponding types of goods. For many raw materials (grain, cotton, rubber, etc.) world prices are set in the course of trading on the world's largest commodity exchanges.

The international value is usually less than the national value of the corresponding goods, since, as a rule, the most competitive goods are supplied to the world market, that is, those produced with the lowest level of costs. Other factors also affect world prices: the ratio of supply and demand, product quality, and the state of the monetary sphere. However, long-term trends in the formation of world prices are manifested as the universal operation of the law of value in the world market. As an illustration of world pricing, we give table. nine.

Table 4 Average monthly world prices in June of the corresponding year (according to the International Petroleum Exchange (London) and London Metal Exchange)


Oil (Brent), USD / t
Natural gas, USD / thousand m3
Gasoline, USD / t
Copper, USD / t
Aluminum, USD / t
Nickel, USD / t

For a quantitative assessment of the impact of foreign trade on the growth of national income and GNP of the country, a foreign trade multiplier model has been developed and is used in practice.

Recall that the principle of multiplication characterizes the influence exerted by investment, and ultimately by any expenses, on employment growth and an increase in output (income), that is

MULT = = 1/1-s,

where DY is the increase in income, and DI is the increase in investment; c - marginal propensity to consume.

The model of the foreign trade multiplier can be calculated using a similar scheme. At the same time, we will accept the assumption of the possibility of independent from each other the impact of imports and exports on the development of the national economy of a country participating in foreign economic activity. The impact of imports in this case can be equated to the impact of consumption, and the impact of exports - to the investment impact. Accordingly, the marginal propensity to consume in this case takes the form of the marginal propensity to import: c = m = M / Y, and the marginal propensity to save takes the form of the marginal propensity to export: s = x = X / Y. An autonomous change in exports will have an effect of the following character on income growth:

This is the foreign trade multiplier.

In real life, exports and imports are interconnected. The import of the country is at the same time the export for the counterparty state. Such interdependence significantly complicates the multiplier model, which, in order to reflect real foreign trade relations, must take into account the interaction of at least two countries. Let us consider the multiplier model using the example of the development of relations between two countries - country 1 and country 2, between which there are foreign trade relations. At the same time, the export of country 1 is completely directed to country 2 and is equal to its imports, and vice versa.

This formula substantiates the dependence of the change in the income of country 1 due to the change in investment on the marginal propensity to consume and to import not only country 1, but also country 2. An increase in investment in the investing country (country 1) causes an increase in income in it as a result of the multiplier effect, at the same time stimulates imports acting as exports for the counterparty country (country 2). In turn, the exports of country 2 stimulate the growth of its income.

Brief conclusions

International trade is one of the most developed and traditional forms of international economic relations. In the field of international trade, there is intense competition, since here the economic interests of almost all the main subjects of the world economy collide. International trade consists of two opposite flows - exports and imports. The nominal volume of international trade as a whole has a general upward trend. As prices in international trade rise, the value of trade grows faster than its physical volume.

Simultaneously with the growth of the scale of international trade, its structure also changes - geographical shifts (changes in the relationships between countries and groups of countries) and shifts in the commodity structure.

The classical theories of international trade laid the foundations for the analysis of world economic relations. The conclusions contained in these theories have become a kind of starting axioms for the further development of economic thought.

The development of world trade is subject to the multiplier effect.

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Tariff methods of regulation of foreign trade

Tariff regulation is associated with the introduction of customs tariffs and duties.
A customs tariff is a set of customs duty rates applied to goods crossing a country's customs border.
The main functions of the customs tariff:
protects domestic producers from foreign competition;
is a source of funds for the state budget;
serves as a means of improving the access of national goods to foreign markets.

The regulation of world trade at the interstate level is a jointly adopted by the governments of different countries on the basis of compromise agreements (legal provisions, norms, procedures, agreed mutual obligations, recommendations) in the field of economic policy and practice, reflecting the interests of the participating countries. Regulation is aimed at creating certain prerequisites that contribute to the further development of world economic ties between interested states, in particular, by achieving stability and predictability of the market access regime.
International regulation is an organic part of the world trade mechanism. It acts as a means of promoting the exchange of material values and services, production and technical knowledge and experience between national producers and exporters of goods and services. The organizational forms of international regulation of interstate trade and economic relations are international economic organizations.

International trade is a commodity-money exchange between countries. The World Trade Organization (WTO) plays a decisive role in the regulation of international trade in goods and services.

Goods entering the external market form the world market for goods; services - the world market for services. A third of all world trade is trade in services. International trade in services has its own specifics: intangibility, invisibility, inseparability of production and consumption, heterogeneity and variability of quality, inability to store services.

It is because of the intangibility and invisibility of most services that their trade is sometimes called invisible exports or imports. However, in this case, there are many exceptions. Usually services do not have a materialized form, although a number of services are materialized in the form of computer programs on magnetic media, films, and various documentation.

Services, unlike goods, are produced and consumed primarily at the same time and are not subject to storage. In this regard, the presence abroad of direct producers of services or foreign consumers in the country of production of services is required. Services, unlike transactions with goods, are not subject to customs control.

The development of the service sector is greatly influenced by scientific and technological progress: new types of services appear, the quality of service improves, technical barriers in the transfer of certain services are removed, and this opens the world market for them. All this confirms that the service sector, over the past two decades, has been one of the most dynamically developing sectors of the world economy.

Services in the world market usually include transport and communications, trade, logistics, domestic, housing and utilities services, catering, hospitality, tourism, financial and insurance services, science, education, health care, physical education and sports; culture and art, as well as engineering consulting, information and computing services, real estate transactions, market research services, marketing organization, after-sales service, etc. In a number of countries, construction is also included in services. Of course, different types of services are involved in international exchange and with varying degrees of intensity. In this sense, for example, on the one hand, transport and communications, tourism and, on the other hand, utilities and household services are very different.

International trade in services, in contrast to trade in goods, where the role of trade intermediation is great, is based on direct contacts between producers and consumers. Since services, unlike goods, are produced and consumed mainly at the same time and are not subject to storage. Because of this, international trade in services requires either the presence abroad of their direct producers, or the presence of foreign consumers in the country producing the services. At the same time, the development of informatics has significantly expanded the possibilities of providing many types of services at a distance.

International trade in services is closely interrelated with trade in goods and continues to influence it to a greater extent. For the supply of goods to the foreign market, more and more services are required, from market analysis to transportation of goods and their after-sales service. The role of services is especially great in the trade of knowledge-intensive goods, which require large volumes of after-sales service, information and various consulting (consulting) services. The volume and quality of services involved in the production and sale of goods largely determine the success of the latter in the foreign market.

International exchange of services is carried out mainly between developed countries and is characterized by a high degree of concentration. The largest exporters of services in the world are the USA, Great Britain, and France. The largest importers of services are the USA, Germany, Japan.

The service sector combines a wide range of economic activities aimed at meeting the personal needs of the population and the needs of production, as well as the consumption of society as a whole.

Organizational and technical aspect examines physical exchange of goods and services between state-registered national economies (states). At the same time, the main attention is paid to the problems associated with the purchase (sale) of specific goods, their movement between counterparties (seller - buyer) and crossing state borders, with calculations, etc. These aspects of MT are studied by specific special (applied) disciplines - organization and technique of foreign trade operations, customs, international financial and credit operations, international law (its various branches), accounting, etc.

Organizational and market aspect defines MT as the aggregate of world demand and world supply, which materialize in two counter flows of goods and (or) services - world export (export) and world import (import). At the same time, the global one is understood as the volume of production of goods that consumers are ready to collectively purchase at the existing price level inside and outside the country, and the aggregate supply is understood as the volume of production of goods that manufacturers are ready to offer on the market at the existing price level. They are usually considered only in terms of value. The problems that arise in this case are mainly associated with the study of the state of the market for specific goods (the ratio of supply and demand on it - the conjuncture), the optimal organization of commodity flows between countries, taking into account a wide variety of factors, but above all the price factor.

These problems are studied by international marketing and management, theories of international trade and the world market, international monetary and financial relations.

Socio-economic aspect considers MT as a special type socio-economic relations arising between states in the process and about the exchange of goods and services. These relationships have a number of features that make them of particular importance in the global economy.

First of all, it should be noted that they are global in nature, since they involve all states and all their economic groupings; they are an integrator, uniting national economies into a single world economy and internationalizing it, based on the international division of labor (MRT). MT determines what is more profitable for the state to produce and under what conditions to exchange the produced product. Thus, it contributes to the expansion and deepening of MRI, and hence MT, involving all new states in them. These relations are objective and universal, that is, they exist independently of the will of one (group) person and are suitable for any state. They are able to systematize the world economy, placing states depending on the development of foreign trade (BT) in it, on the share that it (BT) occupies in international trade, on the size of per capita foreign trade turnover. On this basis, distinguish between "small" countries - those that cannot influence the price change for MR, if they change their demand for any product and, conversely, "large" countries. Small countries, in order to make up for this weakness in a particular market, often unite (integrate) and present aggregate demand and aggregate supply. But large countries can also unite, thus strengthening their position in the MT.

Characteristics of international trade

A number of indicators are used to characterize international trade:

the value and physical volume of world trade;
general, commodity and geographical (spatial) structure;
the level of specialization and industrialization of exports;
elasticity coefficients MT, export and import, terms of trade;
foreign trade, export and import quotas;
trade balance.

World trade

World trade is the sum of the foreign trade turnover of all countries. Foreign trade turnover of the country Is the sum of exports and imports of one country with all countries with which it is in foreign trade relations.

Since all countries import and export goods and services, then world trade define also as the sum of world exports and world imports.

State world trade is estimated by its volume for a certain time period or for a certain date, and development- the dynamics of these volumes for a certain period.

The volume is measured in value and physical terms, respectively, in US dollars and in physical measurement (tons, meters, barrels, etc., if it applies to a homogeneous group of goods), or in a conditional physical measurement, if the goods do not have a single physical measurement ... To estimate the physical volume, the value volume is divided by the average world price.

To assess the dynamics of world trade, chain, basic and average annual rates (indices) of growth are used.

MT structure

The structure of world trade shows ratio in its total volume of certain parts, depending on the chosen feature.

General structure reflects the ratio of exports and imports in percent or in shares. In physical volume, this ratio is equal to 1, and in total, the share of imports is always greater than the share of exports. This is due to the fact that exports are priced at FOB (Free on board) prices, at which the seller pays only for the delivery of the goods to the port and their loading on board the vessel; imports are valued at CIF prices (cost, insurance, freight, that is, they include in the cost of goods, the cost of freight, insurance costs and other port charges).

Commodity structure world trade shows the share of a particular group in its total volume. It should be borne in mind that in MT, a product is considered as a product that satisfies any social need, towards which two main market forces are directed - supply and demand, and one of them necessarily operates from abroad.

Goods produced in national economies participate in MT in different ways. Some of them do not participate in it at all. Therefore, all goods are divided into tradable and non-tradable.

Tradable goods are goods freely moving between countries, non-tradable goods, for one reason or another (uncompetitive, strategically important for the country, etc.), do not move between countries. When we talk about the commodity structure of world trade, we are talking only about tradable goods.

In the most general proportion in the world trade turnover, trade in goods and services is distinguished. Currently, the ratio between them is 4: 1.

In world practice, various systems of classification of goods and services are used. For example, in trade in goods, the Standard International Trade Classification (UN) - CMTK is used, in which 3118 main commodity items are grouped into 1033 subgroups (of which 2805 items are included in 720 subgroups), which are aggregated into 261 groups, 67 departments and 10 sections. Most countries use the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System (including the RF since 1991).

When characterizing the commodity structure of world trade, two large groups of goods are most often distinguished: raw materials and finished products, the ratio between which (in percent) has developed as 20: 77 (other 3%). For certain groups of countries, it varies from 15: 82 (for developed countries with market economies) (3% others) to 45: 55 (for developing countries). For individual countries (foreign trade turnover), the range of variations is even wider. This ratio can change depending on changes in raw material prices, especially for energy.

For a more detailed description of the commodity structure, a diversified approach can be used (within the framework of the CMTS or in other frameworks in accordance with the objectives of the analysis).

To characterize world exports, it is important to calculate the share of engineering products in its total volume. Comparing it with a similar indicator of a country allows us to calculate the index of industrialization of its exports (I), which can be in the range from 0 to 1. The closer it is to 1, the more trends in the development of the country's economy coincide with the trends in the development of the world economy.

Geographic (spatial) structure world trade is characterized by its distribution in the direction of commodity flows - a set of goods (in physical value terms) moving between countries.

There are trade flows between countries with a developed market economy (EMEC). They are usually denoted "West - West" or "North - North". They account for about 60% of world trade; between SRRE and RS, which denote "West - South" or "North - South", they account for over 30% of the world trade turnover; between RS - "South - South" - about 10%.

In the spatial structure, one should also distinguish between regional, integration and intra-corporate trade. These are parts of the world trade, reflecting its concentration within one region (for example, Southeast Asia), one integration group (for example, the EU) or one corporation (for example, a TNC). Each of them is characterized by its general, commodity and geographical structure and reflects the trends and degree of internationalization and globalization of the world economy.

MT specialization

To assess the degree of specialization of world trade, the specialization index (T) is calculated. It shows the share of intra-industry trade (exchange of parts, assemblies, semi-finished products, finished items of one industry, for example, cars of different brands, models) in the total volume of world trade. Its value is always in the range 0-1; the closer it is to 1, the deeper the international division of labor (MRT) is in the world, the greater the role of the intra-sectoral division of labor in it. Naturally, its value will depend on how broadly the industry is defined: the wider it is, the higher the T.

A special place in the complex of indicators of world trade turnover is occupied by those of them that allow us to assess the impact of world trade on the world economy. These include primarily the coefficient of elasticity of world trade. It is calculated as the ratio of the growth rates of physical volumes of GDP (GNP) and trade turnover. Its economic content consists in the fact that it shows how many percent the GDP (GNP) has increased with an increase in trade turnover by 1%. The global economy tends to increase the role of MT. For example, in 1951-1970. the coefficient of elasticity was 1.64; in 1971-1975 and 1976-1980. - 1.3; in 1981-1985 - 1.12; in 1987-1989 - 1.72; in 1986-1992 - 2.37. As a rule, during periods of economic crises, the coefficient of elasticity is lower than during periods of recessions and booms.

Terms of trade

Terms of trade- the coefficient that establishes the relationship between the average world prices of exports and imports, since it is calculated as the ratio of their indices for a certain period of time. Its value varies from 0 to + ¥: if it is equal to 1, then the terms of trade are stable and maintain the parity of export and import prices. If the coefficient increases (compared to the previous period), then the trading conditions are improving and vice versa.

Coefficients of elasticity MT

Elasticity of imports- an index characterizing the change in aggregate demand for imports resulting from changes in the terms of trade. It is calculated as a percentage of the volume of imports and their price. In terms of its numerical value, it is always greater than zero and changes to
+ ¥. If its value is less than 1, it means that a 1% increase in price has led to an increase in demand by more than 1%, and therefore the demand for imports is elastic. If the coefficient is more than 1, then the demand for imports has grown by less than 1%, which means that imports are inelastic. Therefore, an improvement in the terms of trade forces a country to increase spending on imports if the demand for it is elastic, and to decrease if it is inelastic, while increasing spending on exports.

Export elasticity and imports are also closely related to the terms of trade. With an elasticity of imports equal to 1 (a fall in the price of imports by 1% led to an increase in its volume by 1%), the supply (export) of goods increases by 1%. This means that the elasticity of exports (Ex) will be equal to the elasticity of imports (Eim) minus 1, or Ex = Eim - 1. Thus, the higher the elasticity of imports, the more developed the market mechanism is, allowing producers to react more quickly to changes in world prices. Low elasticity is fraught with serious economic problems for the country, if this is not associated with other reasons: high capital investments made in the industry earlier, the inability to quickly reorient, etc.

The named elasticity indicators can be used to characterize international trade, but they are more effective for characterizing foreign trade. This also applies to indicators such as foreign trade, export and import quotas.

MT quotas

The foreign trade quota (VTC) is defined as the half-sum (S / 2) of exports (E) and imports (I) of a country, referred to GDP or GNP and multiplied by 100%. It characterizes the average dependence on the world market, its openness to the world economy.

The analysis of the significance of exports for the country is estimated by the export quota - the ratio of the amount of exports to GDP (GNP), multiplied by 100%; the import quota is calculated as the ratio of the amount of imports to GDP (GNP) multiplied by 100%.

The growth of the export quota indicates an increase in its importance for the development of the country's economy, but this very importance can be both positive and negative. It is undoubtedly positive if the export of finished products expands, but the growth in the export of raw materials, as a rule, leads to a deterioration in the terms of trade for the exporting country. If, at the same time, exports are mono-commodity, then its growth can lead to the destruction of the economy, therefore such growth is called destructive. The result of such an increase in exports is the lack of funds for its further increase, and the deterioration of the terms of trade in terms of profitability does not allow purchasing the required amount of imports for export earnings.

Trade balance

The resulting indicator characterizing the country's foreign trade is the trade balance, which is the difference between the sum of exports and imports. If this difference is positive (which is what all countries are striving for), then the balance is active, if negative, it is passive. The balance of trade is an integral part of the country's balance of payments and largely determines the latter.

Modern trends in the development of international trade in goods and services

The development of modern MT takes place under the influence of general processes taking place in the world economy. The economic recession that affected all groups of countries, the Mexican and Asian financial crises, the growing size of internal and external imbalances of many, including developed, countries could not but cause uneven development of international trade, a slowdown in its growth in the 1990s. At the beginning of the XXI century. the growth rate of world trade increased, and over 2000-2005. it increased by 41.9%.

The world market is characterized by trends associated with the further internationalization of the world economy and its globalization. They are manifested in the growing role of MT in the development of the world economy, and foreign trade in the development of national economies. The first is confirmed by the growth of the coefficient of elasticity of world trade turnover (more than twofold compared to the mid-1980s), and the second - by the growth of export and import quotas for most countries.

"Openness", "interdependence" of economies, "integration" are becoming key concepts for the world economy and international trade. In many ways, this happened under the influence of TNCs, which really became the centers of coordination and engines of the world exchange of goods and services. Within themselves and among themselves, they have created a network of relations that go beyond the borders of states. As a result, about 1/3 of all imports and up to 3/5 of trade in machinery and equipment falls on intra-corporate trade and represents the exchange of intermediate products (components). The consequence of this process is the barterization of international trade and the growth of other types of countertrade transactions, which already account for up to 30% of all international trade. This part of the world market loses its purely commercial features and turns into the so-called quasi-trade. It is served by specialized intermediary firms, banking and financial institutions. At the same time, the nature of competition in the world market and the structure of competitive factors are changing. The development of the economic and social infrastructure, the presence of a competent bureaucracy, a strong educational system, a stable policy of macroeconomic stabilization, quality, design, product design, timely delivery, and after-sales service are highlighted. As a result, there is a clear stratification of countries on the basis of technological leadership in the world market. Luck comes with those countries that have new competitive advantages, that is, are technological leaders. They are in the minority in the world, but they receive most of the FDI, which strengthens their technological leadership and competitiveness in the MR.

Significant shifts are taking place in the commodity structure of MT: the share of finished goods has increased and the share of food and raw materials (excluding fuel) has decreased. This happened as a result of the further development of scientific and technological progress, which increasingly replaces natural raw materials with synthetic ones, and allows the implementation of resource-saving technologies in production. At the same time, trade in mineral fuels (especially oil) and gas increased sharply. This is due to a complex of factors, including the development of the chemical industry, changes in the fuel and energy balance and an unprecedented rise in oil prices, which at the end of the decade, compared to its beginning, more than doubled.

In the trade of finished goods, the share of science-intensive goods and high-tech products (microtechnology, chemical, pharmaceutical, aerospace, etc.) is growing. This is especially clearly manifested in the exchange between developed countries - technological leaders. For example, in the foreign trade of the USA, Switzerland and Japan, such products account for over 20%, Germany and France - about 15%.

The geographic structure of international trade has also changed quite noticeably, although the West-West sector is still decisive for its development, which accounts for about 70% of the world trade turnover, and within this sector the leading role is played by a dozen (USA, Germany, Japan, France, Great Britain, Italy, Netherlands, Canada, Switzerland, Sweden).

At the same time, trade between developed countries and developing countries is growing more dynamically. This is due to a whole range of factors, not the least of which is the disappearance of an entire cluster of countries in transition. According to the UNCTAD classification, all of them have passed into the category of developing countries (except for 8 CEE countries, which joined the EU on May 1, 2004). According to UNCTAD estimates, RSs were the engine of MT development in the 1990s. They remain so at the beginning of the XXI century. This is due to the fact that although the RS markets are less capacious than the RSRE markets, they are more dynamic and therefore more attractive for their developed partners, especially for TNCs. At the same time, the purely agrarian-raw material specialization of the majority of RSs is complemented by the transfer of functions to them for supplying industrial centers with material-intensive and labor-intensive products of manufacturing industries based on the use of cheaper labor. Often these are the most environmentally dirty industries. TNCs contribute to an increase in the share of finished goods in RS exports, however, the commodity structure of trade in this sector remains predominantly raw materials (by 70-80%), which makes it highly vulnerable to fluctuations in prices on the world market and from deteriorating terms of trade.

There are a number of very acute problems in the trade of developing countries, which arise primarily due to the fact that the main factor of their competitiveness remains price, and the terms of trade, changing not in their favor, inevitably lead to an increase in its imbalance and less intensive growth. The elimination of these problems presupposes the optimization of the commodity structure of foreign trade based on the diversification of industrial production, the elimination of the technological backwardness of countries, which makes their export of finished products uncompetitive, and an increase in the activity of countries in trade in services.

Modern MT is characterized by a trend towards the development of trade in services, especially business services (engineering, consulting, leasing, factoring, franchising, etc.). If in 1970 the volume of world exports of all services (including all types of international and transit transport, foreign tourism, banking services, etc.) amounted to 80 billion dollars, then in 2005 - about 2.2 trillion. dollars, that is, almost 28 times more.

At the same time, the growth rate of export of services is slowing down and lags significantly behind the growth rate of export of goods. So, if for 1996-2005. the average annual export of goods and services has almost doubled compared with the previous decade, then for 2001-2005. the growth of exports of goods averaged 3.38% per year, and services - 2.1%. As a result, the indicator of the share of services in the total volume of world trade is stagnating: in 1996 it was 20%, in 2000 - 19.6%, in 2005 - 20.1%. The leading positions in this trade in services are occupied by the RSRE, they account for about 80% of the total volume of international trade in services, which is due to their technological leadership.

The world market for goods and services is characterized by trends associated with the further internationalization of the world economy. In addition to the growing role of MT in the development of the world economy, the transformation of foreign trade into an integral part of the national reproduction process, there is a clear tendency towards its further liberalization. This is confirmed not only by a decrease in the average level of customs duties, but also by the elimination (softening) of quantitative restrictions on imports, the expansion of trade in services, a change in the nature of the world market itself, which now receives not so much the surplus of national production of goods as pre-agreed deliveries made specifically for a specific consumer. goods.

FOREIGN ECONOMIC RELATIONS

INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC RELATIONS AND FOREIGN ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES

TOPIC 4. INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC RELATIONS

4.1 International trade in goods and services

4.2 International cooperation of production

4.3 International exchange in science and technology

4.4 International capital flows

4.5 Labor migration

4.6 International monetary relations

International trade in goods and services

Under world market understand the sphere of stable commodity-money relations between countries based on the international division of labor and the use of various factors of production; a set of national markets of the countries of the world, interconnected by mobile factors of production.

The world market consists of the following elements (Fig. 4.1.):

· domestic market- this is a form of economic circulation in which everything intended for sale is sold within the country);

· national market- this is a market part of which is focused on foreign buyers;

· international market- this is a part of the national markets that is directly related to foreign markets.

Rice. 4.1 - World market structure

international trade- This is the sphere of international commodity-money relations, which is the totality of foreign trade of all countries of the world.

International trade consists of two counter flows of goods - exports and imports and is characterized by a trade balance and trade turnover.

World economy Is a set of national economies interconnected by mobile factors of production and interacting on the basis of the international division of labor

The international division of labor and its international cooperation laid the foundations for the emergence of the world market, which developed on the basis of internal markets gradually going beyond national borders.

Stages of development of the world market:

1. Stage I of the formation of the market - coincides with the early stage of a commodity economy based on the division of labor, when the simplest form of the market existed - the domestic market (Dr. Greece, China, Egypt, Babylon, Ethiopia, North Africa).

2. ІІ stage of specialization of markets - almost immediately after the emergence of markets began to specialize (labor, capital, retail, trade markets) and part of the market was already oriented towards a foreign buyer, i.e. national markets arose.

3. Stage III (XVI - mid. XVIII centuries) - the manufacture created conditions for a larger-scale production of goods, the markets began to expand to regional, state, interstate and global scales. International markets have emerged (Europe, the Near and Far East, trade is bilateral, great geographical discoveries made it possible to export goods to newly discovered lands).

4. Stage IV - the emergence of the world market itself (I half of the 19th - 20th centuries) - a large factory industry appeared, the products of which needed worldwide sales, therefore, individual centers of intercountry trade grew into a single world market, which was formed by the turn XIX - XX centuries.

The formation of the world economy took place as a result of the evolution of the domestic market (sales from hand to hand, then the emergence of intermediaries, the formation of urban markets, the specialization of markets, the formation of regional markets and national markets oriented towards an external buyer).

Rice. 4.2 - Formation of the world market

For national economies, participation in international trade is represented in the form of foreign trade.

International trade- trade activity of one country with others, which consists of paid export (export) and paid import (import). Foreign trade of all countries forms international trade.

Form of international trade is a way of existence and expression of the content of international exchange.

The forms of international trade are:

Import / re-import;

Export / re-export;

International exchanges;

International auctions;

International bidding;

International leasing.

Under international exchange understand an organizationally designed, regularly functioning market where wholesale standard lots of goods of a certain (basic) grade are sold and bought.

Commodities that are the object of exchange trading are called exchange... They are conventionally grouped into groups:

1) energy raw materials - oil, diesel fuel, gasoline, fuel oil, propane;

2) non-ferrous and precious metals - copper, aluminum, tin, nickel, lead, gold, silver, platinum, etc .;

3) cereals - wheat, corn, oats, rye, barley, rice;

4) oilseeds and products of their processing - flaxseeds and cottonseeds, soybeans, soybean oil, soybean meal;

5) live animals and meat - cattle, live pigs, bacon;

6) food products - raw sugar, refined sugar, potatoes, cocoa beans, vegetable oils, spices, eggs, orange juice concentrate, peanuts;

7) textile raw materials - cotton, natural and artificial silk, washed wool, jute, etc.

8) industrial raw materials - rubber, lumber, plywood.

International commodity exchanges are conditionally subdivided into universal and specialized.

Within the framework of universal commodity exchanges a wide range of commodities is traded. For example, the Chicago Mercantile Exchange trades in cattle, live pigs, gold, lumber, securities, foreign exchange. On the Tokyo Mercantile Exchange, transactions are made in gold, silver, platinum, rubber, cotton yarn, woolen yarn.

Specialized commodity exchanges focused on trade in a certain group of goods. These include: the London Metal Exchange (a group of non-ferrous metals: copper, aluminum, nickel, tin, lead, zinc), the New York Coffee, Sugar and Cocoa Exchange, the New York Cotton Exchange (cotton, orange juice concentrate), New York Stock Exchange "Komex" (a group of precious and non-ferrous metals: gold, silver, copper, aluminum), etc.

International auctions- a method of market organization of international trade, in which both buyers and sellers compete with each other, ensuring the establishment of the most fair competitive prices. Auction goods are traditionally furs, wool, tobacco, tea, some spices, antiques, racehorses. The general condition is that the seller is not responsible for the quality of the goods exhibited for inspection. Well-known international auctions are located in London, New York, Montreal, Amsterdam, Calcutta, Colombo, St. Petersburg (for export furs), Moscow (horse auction).

There are upward and downward auctions.

A buyer's auction, in which the product put up for sale is acquired by the buyer who gave the highest price, is upward.

A downgrade auction- this is an auction of sellers, in which the goods put up for sale leave from the seller who has agreed to the lowest price. It is customary to use a downgrade auction for charitable purposes, the starting price of a product is lowered until someone agrees on the minimum price of the announced lot.

The distinctive features of the auction trade are that:

Trading at the auction is carried out only with real cash goods;

Buyers and their representatives have the opportunity to preliminarily familiarize themselves with the lots put up for auction;

In contrast to exchange-traded goods, the goods offered at the auction are characterized by individuality and even uniqueness.

International bidding are a method of purchasing imported goods, placing orders and issuing contracts, which involves attracting bids from several suppliers or contractors by a predetermined deadline and concluding a contract with the one whose offer is most beneficial to the organizers of international tenders.

The purpose of organizing international tenders is to increase production efficiency, product quality and reliability of facilities under construction on the basis of competition between organizations and enterprises - residents of different countries in the field of engineering.

International engineering, as a field of activity related to the provision of engineering and consulting services to non-residents, includes:

1) pre-design services - conducting survey work of the area, developing a feasibility study for a new production project, its environmental expertise, marketing, etc.;

2) design services - preparation of all documentation necessary for construction and organization of production, development of technical specifications for the creation of new types of equipment, supervision of construction and installation works, determination of relations with suppliers of raw materials and components, etc.;

3) post-project services - the selection of specific types of equipment and the organization of tenders for its supply, installation, installation and commissioning of equipment, personnel training, start-up of a new production, technical control over its operation.

Depending on the method of conducting distinguish informal, closed and open (public) international bidding.

Informal bidding(contracting contracts) are held in the event that competitive bidding for certain reasons (for example, if there are long-standing and close ties between the customer and the contractor or there is only one suitable organization and the participation of this contractor allows significant savings due to the coordination of design, survey, construction and installation and other works) are impractical or impossible.

To participate in closed international tenders a limited number of firms and consortia are involved (these are the most well-known, reputable and reliable suppliers and contractors), invitations are sent to each participant individually, and information about the auctions held in the open press is not published. The organizers of the closed auction themselves determine the range of possible participants, guided by their own selection criteria. Closed trading requires the organizers of a preliminary study of market opportunities and the results of companies operating in this market.

To participate in open (public) auction attracts a large number of participants who have expressed a desire to intensify competition. Announcements of such tenders are published in periodicals - in newspapers, specialized magazines, bulletins, as well as sent to other states through trade missions or consulates for distribution among the business community.

A situation is possible when the organizers find it difficult or simply impossible to determine the circle of participants, then the auction takes place in two stages. At the first stage (open bidding), all comers participate in the bidding, who have provided the organizers with materials, information confirming their high competence and experience in fulfilling such orders, the level of products, customer reviews, etc. Of these, at the second stage (closed bidding) organizers of such trades, often called tender choose the most attractive participants.

To participate in the auction, it is necessary to provide a set of tender documents, which usually includes a detailed description of the equipment being purchased or the facility under construction (its capacity, performance, etc.), basic commercial conditions (delivery terms, payment terms, pricing procedure, etc.), tender proposal form, arbitration terms, penalties, guarantees, equipment maintenance requirements; the possibility of presenting alternative proposals and other conditions necessary for participation in the auction.

All firms participating in the auction submit a properly executed tender against signature to the tender committee, which compares the submitted proposals (which can take from several weeks to several months), summarizes the results and determines the winner.

When conducting public tenders, the package opening procedure is carried out in the presence of all tenderers and representatives of the media. When conducting unofficial bidding tender committees open packages at a closed meeting.

International leasing is a complex economic and legal relationship between residents of different countries for the acquisition of property and its subsequent lease. The same type of leasing includes transactions carried out by the lessor and the lessee of one country, if at least one of the parties conducts its activities and has capital jointly with a foreign company.

Objects of international leasing may be vehicles (buses, cars and trucks); oil, gas and exploration equipment; agricultural machinery and equipment; machine-building equipment; medical equipment; chemical equipment; metallurgical equipment; woodworking equipment; equipment for the food industry, etc.

If the foreign party is the lessor, then the leasing is imported if the foreign party is the lessee, then the leasing is export, if all participants are in different countries, then leasing is transit.

There are a large number of leasing classifications for various reasons. So, according to the signs of payback it is customary to distinguish between financial and operational leasing.

financial leasing represents the relationship of partners, providing during the period of validity of the agreement between them the payment of lease payments covering the full cost of depreciation of equipment or most of it, additional costs and profit of the lessor.

Operational leasing can be viewed as a lease relationship in which the lessor's expenses related to the acquisition and maintenance of the leased items are not covered by the lease payments during one lease agreement.

There are two main trading methods used in international trade:

2. Indirect (indirect):

2.1. through intermediaries (trade and intermediary companies, leasing companies),

2.2. through organized commodity markets (commodity exchanges, international trading, international auctions, international exhibitions and fairs).

The choice of the method of international trade is determined by:

The scale of production,

Product features,

Features of regional consumption markets,

State participation in the international division of labor,

Trade traditions.

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