The effects of attention, primarily positive, allow you to take a step towards identifying the criteria of attention - the necessary characteristics, signs or rules of the "if - then" type, allowing you to establish whether attention is involved in a given cognitive act or practical action or not. Researchers are forced to use such criteria because attention is extremely elusive and is never presented as a separate process with its own content and product.

Perhaps, Yu.B. Gippenreiter succeeded in summarizing the criteria for the presence of attention most fully, who suggested drawing conclusions about the participation of attention on the basis of its manifestations, firstly, in consciousness, secondly, in behavior, and thirdly, in productive activity. Thus, three groups of attention criteria are formed.

I. Phenomenal criteria. This group of criteria, also referred to as "subjective", ie. revealed exclusively to the subject of cognition itself, are precisely the characteristics that gave the classic of the psychology of consciousness W. Jams the right to assert that “everyone knows what attention is” (see Introduction). Introspection reveals them to us, at the dawn of psychology clothed in a sophisticated form of introspection (lat. Introspecto - I look inside). Therefore, all these criteria are formulated in the language of the contents of consciousness and our subjective experiences.

First, this is a special quality of the contents of consciousness: their clarity and distinctness in the focus of attention, along with vague, vague, undifferentiated at the periphery. It was this criterion that allowed the founder of psychology as a scientific discipline, the German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), to compare consciousness with the visual field, the focus of which is attention.

Secondly, the criterion of attention is considered to be a continuous change of contents in the "focus" of consciousness: the constant appearance of new contents and withdrawal to the periphery of old ones. In other words, the object of attention is characterized by constant “development”. However, to W. Jams and a whole galaxy of psychologists after him, such "development" seems not so much a criterion for the presence of attention, as an indispensable condition for its maintenance.

Finally, thirdly, an optional (in other words, not mandatory, but sometimes useful) subjective criterion for the presence of attention, primarily voluntary, can be the experience of effort, interest or, in the words of W. Wundt, “a sense of activity”.

However, not everyone can be asked about what they are experiencing at a given moment in time. Others (for example, animals or babies) simply will not answer, but someone will have to distract from what he was doing, which means that he will no longer be attentive to his task. To draw a conclusion about the presence or absence of attention in these cases, one has to rely on two other groups of criteria.

II. Behavioral criteria. They are also called externally motor or postural tonic, indicating their connection with body position and muscle tone. However, this also includes vegetative changes in the human or animal body, for example: changes in skin resistance, expansion and narrowing of blood vessels. In a broad sense, this group of criteria includes all the "external manifestations" of attention, which can be used to conclude about its presence and which we have listed, speaking about the connection between attention and behavior (see Introduction). These include the setting of the senses (for example, the direction of gaze, turn and tilt of the head), and a change in facial expressions, and a specific posture (in particular, its "freezing" or holding), and holding the breath or its superficial nature.

For a research psychologist, the problem of identifying the behavioral criteria of attention is closely related to the problem of finding its objective physiological indicators - external “indicators” of its presence, which do not manifest themselves in behavior directly, but can be fixed with the help of special devices. For example, low heart rate and dilated pupils can be such indicators of attention. Heart rate (pulse) is one of the most common indicators in studies of infant attention, because, unlike posture and facial expressions, it can be measured quantitatively, and other data on infant attention is difficult to obtain. As for the diameter of the pupil, in the 1970s. it was used as an indicator of the cognitive load on the part of tasks with special requirements for attention.

III. Productive criteria for attention are associated with the success of the activity that a person performs. Here we can distinguish three criteria for the presence of attention, depending on the nature of this activity.

1. Cognitive criterion: a person perceives and understands better what his attention was paid to, in comparison with what it was not directed to. Let's take two students with the same mental ability and knowledge of mathematics and let them read the proof of the same theorem. Based on who will understand it faster and better, we will be able to draw a conclusion with a certain degree of confidence who was more attentive and who was distracted by extraneous thoughts.

2. Mnemic criterion: what has been paid attention to remains in memory. It is no coincidence that when we need a person to remember something, we draw his attention to it. On the contrary, what has not attracted attention will hardly be remembered later. For example, when a group of schoolchildren returns from a museum, the teacher often asks them to recall what exactly they saw and heard during the excursion. This gives him the opportunity to assess whether his students were attentive during the guide's story and what exactly they paid attention to.

3. Executive criterion: if a person performs an action better and makes fewer mistakes in its implementation, then, most likely, he is attentive to what he does. This criterion is often used by psychologists in the study of the distribution of attention when solving several problems at the same time. Imagine that a person must simultaneously read aloud excerpts from the poem "Eugene Onegin" and add three-digit numbers in a column. Let the task of reciting poetry be the main one, not a single mistake should be allowed in it, otherwise you will have to start over. How to assess whether at the same time any attention is paid to the solution of the addition problem? Obviously, by the number of mistakes made. If there are many of them, it means that the person cannot be attentive to the addition, all his attention is occupied by reading poetry. And if not more than usual, then he is also attentive to the problem of addition: perhaps because he reads poetry "automatically", since he had to do it more than once.

When establishing the participation of attention in a particular cognitive or practical action, these groups of criteria should be applied not one at a time, but in aggregate: the more criteria are taken into account, the more correct the conclusion will be. For example, when T. Ribot referred to the phenomena of attention - albeit painful, extreme - such a psychopathological phenomenon as "idee fixe", N.N. Lange expressed the following fair criticism against him: here only one criterion of attention, subjective, is taken into account, and a productive criterion, this phenomenon has nothing to do with attention! And in everyday life it is easy to make mistakes. For example, if outwardly a person - for example, a student - is attention itself, but after listening to a lecture, he cannot remember anything, then either we have an amnestic patient, or the student was not really attentive to what was said at the lecture, but was thinking about something else.

However, in the study of the attention of animals and infants, at best, the last two criteria, and sometimes only behavioral ones, can be applied: it is difficult to talk about the productivity of cognition where it is only about involuntary forms of attention. For example, when an owl turns its head at the slightest rustle and waits for another sound to follow, indicating the approach of a potential victim, based on this behavior, the researcher concludes that the owl is capable of paying attention to auditory events. Under experimental conditions, you can try to estimate the speed of the owl's reaction to the next event from the side where, as expected, its attention is directed. Then the executive criterion will be added to the behavioral criterion, and the researcher will be able to assert with greater confidence that it is about attention, albeit in its simplest forms.

Question 26. Types of attention

1. Depending from personality activity allocate: involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary (post-voluntary) attention.

Involuntary (unintentional) attention arises without the intention of a person to see or hear anything, without a predetermined goal, without efforts of will. Involuntary attention is caused by external reasons - these or other features of the objects acting on a person at the moment.

The features due to which external objects can attract our attention are as follows.

The intensity of the stimulus. An object that is stronger than another that simultaneously acts on the body (stronger sound, brighter light, sharper smell, etc.) is more likely to attract attention.

The novelty, uncommonness of objects. Sometimes even objects that are not distinguished by their intensity attract attention, if only they are new to us; for example, some changes in the familiar environment, the appearance of a new face in the audience or company, etc.

Abrupt change, as well as the dynamism of objects, often observed during complex and long-lasting actions, for example, when observing a sports competition, the perception of a motion picture, etc.

Unintentional attention is characterized by the following main characteristics:

With unintentional attention, a person does not first prepare for a given perception or action.

Unintentional attention comes suddenly, immediately after the impact of irritation and in its intensity is determined by the characteristics of the irritation that caused it.

Unintentional attention is transient: it lasts as long as the corresponding stimuli act, and, if the necessary measures are not taken to consolidate it in the form of intentional, it stops.

Arbitrary (intentional) attention active, purposeful concentration of consciousness, maintaining the level of which is associated with certain volitional efforts necessary to combat stronger influences. An irritant in this situation is a thought or order that is uttered to oneself and causes a corresponding excitement in the cerebral cortex. Voluntary attention depends on the state of the nervous system (decreases in a frustrated, overly excited state) and is determined by motivational factors: the strength of the need, attitude to the object of cognition and attitude (unconscious readiness to perceive objects and phenomena of reality in a certain way). This type of attention is necessary for mastering skills, efficiency depends on it.

On this basis, voluntary attention is distinguished by the following characteristics:

Purposefulness. Arbitrary attention is determined by the tasks that a person sets for himself in a particular activity. With deliberate attention, not all objects attract attention, but only those that stand in connection with the task being performed by a person at a given moment; from many objects, he selects those that are needed in this type of activity.

Organization. With voluntary attention, a person prepares in advance to be attentive to any object, consciously directs his attention to this object, shows the ability to organize the mental processes necessary for this activity.

Increased stability. Intentional attention allows you to organize work for a more or less long time, it is associated with the planning of this work.

These features of voluntary attention make it an important factor in the success of a particular activity.

So, voluntary attention requires significant energy consumption, and therefore, with a narrow focus on one, especially one with little content, an object quickly tires a person than involuntary attention. Without voluntary attention, a person cannot act in a planned way and achieve the goals that he sets out. Even a hobby cannot do without it, because in the latter one can also find uninteresting moments.

Characteristic post-spontaneous attention contained in its very name: it comes after the arbitrary, but qualitatively different from it. When the first positive results appear when solving a problem, interest arises, and activity is automated. Its implementation no longer requires special volitional efforts and is limited only by fatigue, although the purpose of the work remains. This type of attention is of great importance in educational and work activities.

Post-voluntary attention is focused, but does not require special volitional efforts. It possesses the stability of voluntary and energetic parsimony of involuntary attention. Post-voluntary attention is that involuntary attention that is "born" from previously organized voluntary attention. So, sometimes it is difficult to concentrate attention when reading a book, an article, but its content captured, carried away the reader, and he did not notice how voluntary attention turned into After-voluntary. This is the most productive type of attention, which is associated with the most effective intellectual and physical activity. If a person has Post-Spontaneous Attention, it is difficult for him to switch to another object.

2. By the nature of the direction allocate external and internal attention.

Outwardly(perceptual) attention is directed to surrounding objects and phenomena, and internal - on their own thoughts and experiences.

3. By origin allocate natural and socially conditioned attention.

Natural attention- This is the innate ability of a person to selectively respond to certain external or internal stimuli that carry elements of informational novelty.

Socially conditioned attention develops during the life of the subject (in vivo) as a result of training and education. It is associated with selective and conscious response to objects, with volitional regulation of behavior.

4. By the mechanism of regulation allocate direct and indirect attention.

Direct attention is not controlled by anything, except for the object to which it is directed and which corresponds to the actual interests and needs of a person.

Indirect attention regulated by special means, such as gestures.

5. By its focus on the object the following forms of attention are distinguished:

Sensory (directed at perception);

Intellectual (aimed at thinking, memory work);

Motor (directed towards movement).

6. According to the dynamics of intensity distinguish between static and dynamic attention.

Static is called such attention, the high intensity of which easily arises at the very beginning of the work and remains throughout the entire time of its execution. Such attention does not require special "acceleration", gradual accumulation; it is distinguished from the very beginning of work with the maximum degree of intensity. The student, who is distinguished by static attention, as soon as the lesson has begun, immediately becomes involved in educational work and maintains, more or less at the same level, this intensity of attention for the entire time of work.

Dynamic attention is distinguished by opposite qualities; at the beginning of work, it is not intensive; a person needs a certain effort in order to force himself to be attentive to this type of action; he slowly gets involved in work; the first minutes pass with him in constant distraction, and only gradually and with difficulty does he concentrate on work.

Difficulty switching from one type of work to another is also characteristic of dynamic attention.

Dynamic attention is usually associated with the inability to plan work and correctly distribute his forces: a person does not see the distant prospects of his work, does not clearly understand those operations, their volume and sequence that he must perform, does not know how to properly distribute his efforts.

As already noted, the reasons for the decrease in various indicators of attention can be the following:

Weak type of nervous system and associated increased fatigue (inherent in people with a melancholic temperament);

Exhaustion as a result of systematic physical and intellectual overload or systematic lack of sleep;

Various diseases;

Asthenic conditions;

Conflict situations;

Disordered daily routine;

Distracting (noise) stimuli when performing work;

Lack of friendly attitude of family members to each other;

Addiction to alcoholic beverages, etc. Impaired attention is also observed with organic lesions of the brain, primarily its frontal lobes.

Questions 27,28,29. Voluntary, involuntary and post-voluntary attention.

Involuntary attention does not require any effort, it is attracted either by a strong or new or interesting stimulus. The main function of involuntary attention is to quickly and correctly orientate in constantly changing environmental conditions, in the selection of those objects that may have the greatest vital or personal significance at the moment.

Arbitrary attention is natural only to a person and is characterized by an active, purposeful concentration of consciousness associated with volitional efforts. Arbitrary attention arises in cases when a person in his activity sets himself a certain goal, task and consciously develops a program of actions. The main function of voluntary attention is to actively regulate the course of mental processes. It is thanks to the presence of voluntary attention that a person is able to actively, selectively “extract” from memory the information he needs, highlight the main and essential, make the right decisions, and implement plans that arise in activity.

Post-spontaneous attention found in those cases when a person, forgetting about everything, goes headlong into work. This type of attention is characterized by a combination of volitional orientation with favorable external and internal conditions of activity.

Questions 30-31. Holy Islands attention

The properties of attention and their characteristics are one of the important topics in the study of mental and intellectual abilities of a person. The activity and performance of each of us largely depends on these qualities.

The properties of attention in psychology are one of the tools for understanding behavioral and mental factors that affect the process and the ability to receive and perceive various information. The properties of attention include the following characteristics:

Stability of attention is an individual feature of the human psyche, which is characterized by the ability to focus on one object for a certain time. This property is different for each person, but it can be trained to achieve better results in studying subjects and achieving goals.

Concentration is the ability not only to keep attention on one object for a long time, but also to disconnect as much as possible from foreign objects (sounds, movement, interference). The opposite quality of concentration is distraction.

Concentration is a logical continuation of concentration. This is a conscious process in which a person deliberately delves into the study of an object. This factor is of great importance in the intellectual and creative work of a person.

Distribution - the subjective ability of a person to hold a certain number of objects at the same time. It is most revealingly manifested in communication, when a person can hear several interlocutors at once and keep the dialogue with each of them under control.

Switchability is the individual ability of a person to switch from one object or type of activity to another. The speed of switching and the ability to quickly restructure attention, for example, from reading to dialogue with a teacher, is an important tool for learning in the future in working moments.

Volume - the ability of a person to direct and hold a certain number of objects in a minimum period of time. With the help of special equipment, it was proved that in one fraction of a second, a person can keep a specific number (4-6) subjects in attention.

No other mental process is mentioned so often in everyday life and does not find a place for itself with such difficulty within the framework of psychological concepts as attention. Often, attention is used to explain success in school and work, and inattention is to blame for mistakes, blunders, and failures. Features of attention are necessarily diagnosed when admitting children to school, when selecting for a wide variety of professional activities, as well as to determine the current state of a person. However, in scientific psychology, the problem of attention stands somewhat apart, and researchers have significant difficulties in interpreting this concept and the phenomena that stand behind it. This situation is connected with two important points. First, many authors emphasize the “lack of independence” of attention as a mental process. At first glance, attention does not appear anywhere in isolation from other phenomena and does not have its own separate specific product. Secondly, attention is a mental instrument of the subject's activity, allowing him not to be a toy of external influences when interacting with the world around him.

In some theoretical approaches, the specificity of attention and the single essence of its manifestations are denied. Attention is seen as a by-product or characteristic of other processes. For example, within the framework of Gestalt psychology, it was believed that all phenomena of attention can be explained by the laws of structural perception, that is, by the organization of external stimuli. Therefore, separate studies of attention were considered unnecessary and created "pseudo-problems."

However, the fact that attention is inextricably linked with other mental processes or activities of the subject cannot be considered evidence of his "non-existence". Attention can be controlled using external or internal tools. Moreover, this management is not limited to the management of activities. There are specific disorders of attention, which lead to a change in behavior, to the inability to perform certain activities, but which are feared from disturbances in perception, memory, thinking. Such information, mainly from the field of applied psychology, does not allow us to consider attention only as a side or concomitant process.

At a new stage in the development of ideas about attention, adherents of cognitive psychology in most cases describe it as a separate instance and consider it either as a block of information selection, or as a reservoir of resources, or as a control panel for processes, or as a specific anticipatory activity (Velichkovsky B.M., 1982 ; Dormyshev Yu.B., Romanov V. Ya., 1995).

A person does not process all the information coming from the outside world, and does not react to all influences. Among the whole variety of incentives, only those are selected that are related to his needs and interests, with his expectations and attitudes, with his goals and objectives. Loud sounds and bright flashes attract attention not only because of their increased intensity, but because such a reaction meets the living creature's need for safety. However, even among various needs and interests, among various tasks, a choice is made, attention is focused only on certain objects and only on the performance of certain tasks. Therefore, the place of attention in a particular psychological concept depends on the importance attached to the activity of the subject of mental activity.

The problem of attention was first developed within the framework of the psychology of consciousness. The main task was considered to be the study of a person's inner experience. But while introspection remained the main research method, the problem of attention eluded psychologists. Attention served only as a "stand", a tool for their mental experiences. Using an objective experimental method, W. Wundt found that simple reactions to visual and auditory stimuli depend not only on the characteristics of external stimuli, but also on the subject's attitude to the perception of this stimulus. The simple entry of any content into consciousness, he called perception (perception), and the focusing of clear consciousness on individual contents - attention, or apperception. For such followers of Wundt as E. Titchener and T. Ribot, attention became the cornerstone of their psychological systems (Dormyshev Yu. B., Romanov V. Ya., 1995).

· Attention - carrying out the selection of the necessary information, ensuring electoral programs of action and maintaining constant control over their course.

At the beginning of the century, this situation changed dramatically. Gestalt psychologists believed that the objective structure of the field, and not the subject's intentions, determine the perception of objects and events. Behaviorists rejected attention and consciousness as the main concepts of the psychology of consciousness. They tried to completely abandon these words, since they mistakenly hoped that they could develop somewhat more precise concepts that would allow, using strict quantitative characteristics, to objectively describe the corresponding psychological processes. However, forty years later, the concepts of "consciousness" and "attention" returned to psychology (Velichkovsky BM, 1982).

On what basis can we say that we are dealing with mechanisms of attention? What phenomena of mental life does this concept describe? In psychology, it is customary to distinguish the following criteria for attention:

1. External reactions - motor, late tonic, vegetative, providing conditions for better signal perception. These include turning the head, fixing the eyes, facial expressions and posture of concentration, holding the breath, vegetative components of the orienting reaction.

2. Concentration on the performance of a specific activity. This criterion is basic for the "activity" approaches to the study of attention. It is associated with the organization of activities and control over its implementation.

3. Increased productivity of cognitive and executive activity. In this case, we are talking about increasing the effectiveness of "attentive" action (perceptual, mnemonic, mental, motor) in comparison with "inattentive".

4. Selectivity (selectivity) of information. This criterion is expressed in the ability to actively perceive, remember, analyze only part of the incoming information, as well as in responding only to a limited range of external stimuli.

5. Clarity and distinctness of the contents of consciousness that are in the field of attention. This subjective criterion was put forward within the framework of the psychology of consciousness. The entire field of consciousness was divided into a focal area and a periphery. The units of the focal area of ​​consciousness appear stable, bright, and the contents of the periphery of consciousness are clearly indistinguishable and merge into a pulsating cloud of indefinite shape. Such a structure of consciousness is possible not only with the perception of objects, but also with memories and reflections.

Historically, it is customary to define attention as the direction and concentration of consciousness on certain objects. This definition bears a clear imprint of the era when psychology was "the science of consciousness." Today, it is not entirely correct to define attention through consciousness, since consciousness itself is an even more obscure mental phenomenon, which is interpreted by psychologists in completely different ways.

Not all attention phenomena are related to consciousness. The remarkable Russian psychologist NN Lange divided the objective and subjective aspects of attention. He believed that in our consciousness there is, as it were, one brightly lit place, moving away from which mental phenomena darken or pale, become less and less conscious. Attention, considered objectively, is nothing more than the relative dominance of a given representation at a given moment in time: subjectively, it means being focused on this impression (Lange N.N., 1976).

Within the framework of various approaches, psychologists focus on certain manifestations of attention: on vegetative reactions of information selection, control over the performance of an activity or a state of consciousness. However, if you try to generalize the entire phenomenology of attention, then you can come to the following definition: attention is the selection of the necessary information, the provision of selective action programs and the maintenance of constant control over their course (Luria A.R., 1975). ...

The main properties of attention are focused on certain objects and phenomena (in particular, external and internal), the degree and scope of attention.

Introduction 3

1. Attention problems in psychology 5

2. Types and properties of attention 10

Conclusion 16

List of used literature 18

Introduction

All processes of cognition, be it perception or thinking, are directed at one or another object that is reflected in them: we perceive something, think about something, imagine or imagine something. At the same time, he does not perceive perception in itself, and thinks not in itself by thought; a person perceives and thinks - a perceiving and thinking person. Therefore, in each of the above processes there is always some relation of the personality to the world, the subject to the object, consciousness to the object. This attitude finds expression in attention.

Feeling and perception, memory, thinking, imagination - each of these processes has its own specific content; each process is a unity of image and activity: perception is the unity of the process of perception - perception - and perception as an image of an object or phenomenon of reality; thinking is the unity of thinking as an activity and thought as a content - a concept, a general idea, a judgment. Attention has no special content; it manifests itself within perception, thinking. It is a side of all cognitive processes of consciousness, and, moreover, that side of them in which they act as an activity directed at an object.

Since attention expresses the relationship between subject and object, a certain two-sidedness is also observed in it; on the one hand, attention is directed to the object; on the other hand, the object attracts attention. The reasons for attention to this, and not to another object, are not only in the subject, they are in the object, and even, first of all, in it, in its properties and qualities; but they are not in the object in itself, just as they are all the more not in the subject in itself — they are in the object taken in its relation to the subject, and in the subject in its relation to the object.

Attention is usually phenomenologically characterized by the selective focus of consciousness on a certain object, which is realized with particular clarity and distinctness. Selective focus is central to attention. In the highest forms of attention, the activity, spontaneity of the subject appears.

The appearance of attention in the process of perception means that a person not only hears, but also listens or even listens or listens, not only sees, but also looks, peers, examines, his perception turns into operating with data and sometimes obtaining them for a specific purpose.

The presence of attention, therefore, means, first of all, a change in the structure of the process, the transition from seeing to looking, to peering, from perception to observation, from process to purposeful activity.

The problem of attention in psychology

No other mental process is mentioned so often in everyday life and, at the same time, with such difficulty does not find a place for itself in scientific concepts as attention. In everyday psychology, attention is often attributed to success in school and work, and inattention is often attributed to mistakes, blunders and failures. However, in psychological science, the problem of attention stands somewhat apart, and researchers have significant difficulties in interpreting this concept and the phenomena that stand behind it.

This situation is due to two extremely important facts.

· Firstly, many authors emphasize the “lack of independence” of attention as a mental process. Both for the subject himself and for an outside observer, it opens up as the direction, mood and concentration of any mental activity, therefore, only as a side or property of this activity.

· Secondly, attention does not have its own separate, specific product. Its result is the improvement of every activity to which it joins. Meanwhile, it is the presence of a characteristic product that serves as equal proof of the corresponding function. In this regard, in some theoretical approaches, the specificity of attention and the single essence of its manifestations are denied - attention is considered as a by-product and characteristic of other processes.

A person does not process all the information coming from the outside world, and does not react to all influences. Among the variety of stimuli, they select only those that are related to their needs and interests, expectations and attitudes, goals and objectives - for example, loud sounds and bright flashes attract attention not because of their increased intensity, but because such a reaction is responsible the living creature's needs for security. Due to the fact that attention is focused only on certain objects and only on the performance of certain tasks, the place of attention in a particular psychological concept depends on the importance attached to the activity of the subject of mental activity.

In psychology, it is customary to distinguish the following criteria for attention:

1. External reactions - motor and autonomic reactions that provide conditions for better signal perception. These include turning the head, fixing the eyes, facial expressions and posture of concentration, holding the breath, vegetative components;

2. Concentration on the performance of a certain activity - the state of the subject's absorption by the subject of activity, abstraction from the side conditions and objects that are not related to him;

3. Increased productivity of cognitive and executive activity;

4. Selectivity (selectivity) of information. This criterion is expressed in the ability to actively perceive, remember, analyze only part of the incoming information, as well as in responding to a limited range of external stimuli;

5. Clarity and distinctness of the content of consciousness, which is in the field of attention.

Historically, it is customary to define attention as the direction of consciousness and its concentration on certain objects. However, if we try to generalize the entire phenomenology of attention, then we can come to the following definition: attention is the selection of the necessary information, the provision of electoral programs of action and the maintenance of constant control over their course. Representatives of the neurophysiological line of research traditionally associate attention with the concepts of dominant, activation, and orienting response.

The concept of "dominant" was introduced by the Russian physiologist A. Ukhtomsky. According to him, excitement is distributed unevenly throughout the nervous system. Each activity can create foci of optimal excitation in the nervous system, which become dominant. They not only dominate and inhibit other foci of nervous excitement, but even intensify under the influence of the action of extraneous excitement. It is this characteristic of the dominant that allowed Ukhtomsky to regard it as a physiological mechanism of attention.

The selective nature of the course of mental processes is possible only in a state of wakefulness, which is provided by a special structure of the brain - the reticular formation. Selective activation is provided by the descending influences of the reticular formation, the fibers of which begin in the cerebral cortex and are directed to the motor nuclei of the spinal cord. The separation of the reticular formation from the cerebral cortex leads to a decrease in tone and induces sleep. Disturbances in the functioning of the reticular formation lead to disturbances in attention.

The concept of "orienting reflex" was introduced by I.P. Pavlov and is associated with the active reaction of the animal to each change in the situation, manifested through general revival and a number of selective reactions. I.P. Pavlov figuratively called this reaction a reflex "what is it?" Orientation reactions have a clear biological meaning and are expressed in a number of distinct electrophysiological, vascular and motor reactions, which include turning the eyes and head towards a new object, changing galvanic skin and vascular reactions, imputation of respiration, and the occurrence of desynchronization phenomena in the bioelectrical activity of the brain. With repeated repetition of the same stimulus, the orienting reaction fades away. The body gets used to this irritant. Such addiction is a very important mechanism in the development of a child's cognitive activity. In this case, only a slight change in the stimulus is sufficient for an orienting reaction to appear.

Another view of attention mechanisms has developed within the framework of cognitive psychology. In 1958, D. Broadbent, in his book "Perception and Communication", compared the functioning of attention with the work of an electromechanical filter that selects (selects) information and protects the information transmission channel from overload. The term has taken root in cognitive psychology and has spawned a significant number of attention patterns. All models of this kind can be conditionally divided into models of early and late selection. Models of early selection (these include, first of all, the model of D. Brodbent) assume that information is selected on the basis of sensory features by a filter that works on the principle of “all or nothing”. Models of late selection (the most famous is D. Navon's model) assume that all incoming information is processed in parallel and recognized, after which the selected information is stored in memory, and the unselected information is very quickly forgotten. Various compromise options have also been proposed.

S.L. Rubinstein, developing his concept of mental activity, believed that attention has no content of its own. According to this scientist, attention reveals the attitude of the individual to the world, the subject to the subject, consciousness to the object. He wrote that "the interests and needs, attitudes and orientation of the individual are always behind attention."

Views close to these were expressed by N.F. Dobrynin. He considered attention to be a form of manifestation of personality activity and believed that, when describing attention, one should speak not about the orientation of consciousness towards the object, but about the orientation of consciousness towards activity with the object. In his concept, attention was defined as the direction and concentration of mental activity. By focus, the scientist understood the choice of activity and the maintenance of this choice, and by concentration - deepening into this activity and detachment, distraction from any other activity.

In P.Ya. Galperin's theory, attention is considered as a process of control over actions. In real life, we constantly perform several simultaneous actions: walking, looking, thinking, etc. Such an experience of self-observation, it would seem, does not agree with the data of experiments, which show how difficult the task of combining two actions is. However, most alignments are made possible by automation or by changing the control level. Similar views are gaining more and more popularity in modern Western concepts of attention.

Types and properties of attention

Attention is the focus and focus of consciousness at a given moment on some real or ideal object. Attention helps to better understand oneself, one's thoughts and experiences, since its goal is to improve the activity of all cognitive processes. Associated with this is the peculiarity of attention, which, unlike other cognitive processes, does not have its own product.

It seems legitimate to identify attention with a clear, distinct area of ​​consciousness, which was already mentioned earlier.

Getting into this area, we become aware of the objects of our activity much more clearly, their changes are better noticed and recorded, which helps to achieve the desired result faster and more accurately.

Attention is closely related to the volitional activity of a person. Classification on the basis of arbitrariness is the most traditional: the division of attention into voluntary and involuntary, historians of psychology find already in Aristotle. In accordance with the degree of participation of will in focusing attention, N.F. Dobrynin identified three types of attention:

• involuntary;
• arbitrary;
• post-spontaneous.

Involuntary attention occurs unintentionally, without any special effort. By its origin, it is most of all associated with "orienting reflexes" (IP Pavlov). The reasons that cause involuntary attention lie primarily in the peculiarities of external influences - stimuli. These features include the strength of the stimulus. Strong stimuli (bright light, intense colors, loud sounds, harsh odors) easily attract attention, since, according to the law of force, the stronger the stimulus, the more significant the excitement it causes. Of great importance is not only the absolute, but also the relative strength of irritation, i.e. the ratio of the strength of this impact with the strength of other, background, stimuli. No matter how strong the stimulus may be, it may not attract attention if given against the background of other strong stimuli. In the noise of a big city, individual, even loud, sounds remain out of our attention, although they easily attract him, when they are, they are heard in silence at night. On the other hand, even the weakest stimuli become an object of attention if they are given against the background of a complete absence of other stimuli: the slightest noise in complete silence around, a very weak light in the dark, etc. In all these cases, the decisive factor is the contrast between the stimuli. It can relate not only to the strength of stimuli, but also to their other features.

A person involuntarily pays attention to any significant difference: in shape, size, color, duration of action, etc. A small object stands out more easily from a large one; long sound - among abrupt, short sounds; the colored circle is among the whites. The number is visible among the letters; foreign word - in the Russian text; the triangle is next to the squares. To a large extent, attention is drawn to abrupt or repetitive changes in stimuli: significant changes in the appearance of well-known people, things, periodic intensification or weakening of sound, light, etc. The movement of objects is perceived in a similar way.

An important source of involuntary attention is the novelty of objects and phenomena. The stereotypical, stereotypical, repetitive does not attract attention. The new, however, easily becomes the object of attention - to the extent that it can be understood. For this, the new must find support in the past experience. Called by external stimuli, involuntary attention is essentially determined by the state of the person himself.

The same objects or phenomena may become an object of attention or not attract it, depending on what the state of a person is at the moment. An important role is played by the needs and interests of people, their attitude to what affects them. The object of involuntary attention easily becomes everything that is associated with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of a person's needs (both organic, material, and spiritual, cultural), everything that corresponds to his interests, to which he has a definite, clearly expressed and especially emotional attitude. Anyone who is interested in sports will pay attention to the poster informing about the sports competition, the musician's attention will be attracted by the announcement of the concert, etc.

A significant role is played by the mood and emotional state of a person, which to a large extent determine the choice of an object of attention. The physical condition of a person is essential. In a state of extreme fatigue, something that easily attracts attention in a vigorous state is often not noticed.

Arbitrary attention has a pronounced conscious, strong-willed character and is observed with the deliberate performance of any activity. It is a prerequisite for work, training, work in general.

For the effective implementation of any activity, expediency, concentration, focus and organization, the ability to distract from what is insignificant for obtaining the intended result are always necessary.

Thanks to voluntary attention, people can do not only what they are directly interested in, captures, excites, but also what does not have direct attraction, but is necessary. The less a person is carried away by work, the more volitional efforts are required to focus attention.

The reason that causes and maintains voluntary attention is the awareness of the importance of the object of attention for the performance of this activity, the satisfaction of needs, while with involuntary attention, the meaning of the object may not be realized.

Making significant efforts to get involved in work, for example, starting to solve a complex geometric problem, the student, having found interesting ways to solve it, can get so carried away by the work that volitional efforts will become unnecessary, although the consciously set goal will remain. This kind of attention was named by N.F. Dobrynin post-spontaneous attention. For a person whose work is creative, this form of attention is very characteristic.

A decrease in volitional tension with involuntary attention can be a consequence of the development of work skills, especially the habit of working with concentration in a certain mode.

· Concentration of attention characterizes the intensity of concentration and the degree of distraction from everything that is not included in the field of attention. An important condition for maintaining the optimal intensity of attention is the rational organization of work, taking into account the individual characteristics of working capacity, as well as optimal external conditions (silence, lighting, etc.).

· Distribution of attention is such an organization of mental activity in which two or more actions are performed simultaneously, the ability to control several independent processes without losing any of them from the field of attention. Many famous personalities could perform several types of activities at the same time. The main condition for the successful distribution of attention is that at least one action must be at least partially automated, brought to the level of skill. Therefore, you can, for example, easily combine watching a movie on TV and some manual work. The two types of mental work are more difficult to perform. The most difficult thing is the distribution of attention between two thought processes with different contents (for example, pondering a thought and listening to reasoning on another topic). Trying to get a good grasp on both sets of thought creates a state of emotional tension. Distribution of attention is often supplemented or replaced by rapid switching.

· The amount of attention is the number of unconnected objects that can be perceived clearly and distinctly at the same time. It follows from the definition that the volume of attention is less than the volume of perception. In an adult, the amount of attention is on average 7 + -2 elements. The limited scope of attention must be taken into account in practice in cases where it is necessary that visual information is "grasped" instantly.

· Switching attention is a conscious, deliberate, purposeful change in the direction of mental activity, due to the setting of a new goal. Thus, any transfer of attention to another object cannot be attributed to switching. Training, special training can improve attention switching. At the same time, the possibility of training this property of attention is limited, which is due to the close connection between the switchability of attention and the mobility of nervous processes. Sometimes complete (complete) and incomplete (incomplete) switching of attention are distinguished. In the second case, after switching to a new activity, a return to the previous one periodically occurs, which leads to errors and a decrease in the pace of work. This happens, for example, when a new activity is not interesting or when its necessity is not realized. Switching attention is difficult at its high concentration - as a result of this, the so-called errors of absent-mindedness occur, which often mark a characteristic feature of great scientists who are focused on the subject of their research.

· Stability of attention is determined by the duration during which its concentration is maintained. It depends on the characteristics of the material, the degree of its difficulty, comprehensibility, the general attitude of the subject towards it.

It should be noted that there are short-term fluctuations in attention that are not noticed by the subject and do not affect the productivity of his activity, for example, in the case of blinking. Such fluctuations are inevitable.

Conclusion

A person does not process all the information coming from the outside world, and does not react to all influences. Among the variety of stimuli, they select only those that are related to their needs and interests, expectations and attitudes, goals and objectives - for example, loud sounds and bright flashes attract attention not because of their increased intensity, but because such a reaction is responsible the living creature's needs for security.

Attention is the focus and focus of consciousness at a given moment on some real or ideal object. Attention helps to better understand oneself, one's thoughts and experiences, since its goal is to improve the activity of all cognitive processes.

Attention not only transfers and keeps the object in the zone of clear consciousness, but also helps to distract from thoughts and ideas that are unnecessary at the moment, weeding them out and not allowing concentration on extraneous (for this activity) things.

Attention is closely related to the volitional activity of a person. In accordance with the degree of participation of will in focusing attention, NF Dobrynin identified three types of attention: involuntary; arbitrary; post-spontaneous.

Involuntary attention occurs unintentionally, without any special effort.

Voluntary attention has a clearly pronounced conscious, volitional character and is observed with the deliberate performance of any activity.

Post-voluntary attention arises when interest in the activity being performed arises and maintaining steady attention no longer requires constant volitional efforts.

The properties (characteristic features) of attention include its concentration, distribution, volume, switching and stability.

Concentration of attention characterizes the intensity of concentration and the degree of distraction from everything that is not included in the field of attention.

Distribution of attention is such an organization of mental activity in which two or more actions are performed simultaneously, the ability to control several independent processes without losing any of them from the field of attention.

The amount of attention is the number of unrelated objects that can be perceived clearly and distinctly at the same time.

Switching attention is a conscious, deliberate, purposeful change in the direction of mental activity, due to the setting of a new goal.

The stability of attention is determined by the duration during which its concentration is maintained.

Bibliography:

2. Zhdan A.N. History of Psychology. From Antiquity to the Present: A Textbook for Universities. M., 2005.

3. Bordovskaya N. Pedagogy: Textbook for universities. SPb., 2006.

4. Kravchenko A.I. Psychology and Pedagogy: Textbook.-M .: INFRA-M, 2008.-400 p.

5. Pedagogy and psychology of higher education // Ed. M.V. Bulanova-Toporkova. - Rostov n / a., 2002.

6. Kharlamov I.F. Pedagogy Textbook 4th ed., Revised. and add. M: Gardariki, 2003. Hardcover. 519 s.

Grigorovich L.A., Martsinkovskaya T.D. Pedagogy and Psychology: Textbook. allowance. - M .: Gardariki, 2003 .-- 480 p.

Grigorovich L.A., Martsinkovskaya T.D. Pedagogy and Psychology: Textbook. allowance. - M .: Gardariki, 2003 .-- 480 p.

Zhdan A.N. History of Psychology. From Antiquity to the Present: A Textbook for Universities. M., 2005.

Kravchenko A.I. Psychology and Pedagogy: Textbook.-M .: INFRA-M, 2008.-400 p.

A person does not process all the information coming from the outside world, and does not react to all influences. Among the variety of stimuli, they select only those that are related to their needs and interests, expectations and attitudes, goals and objectives - for example, loud sounds and bright flashes attract attention not because of their increased intensity, but because such a reaction meets the needs of a living being for safety. Due to the fact that attention is focused only on certain objects and only on the performance of certain tasks, the place of attention in a particular psychological concept depends on the importance attached to the activity of the subject of mental activity.

In psychology, it is customary to distinguish the following criteria for attention:

External reactions - motor and autonomic reactions that provide conditions for better signal perception. These include turning the head, fixing the eyes, facial expressions and posture of concentration, holding the breath, vegetative components;

Concentration on the performance of a certain activity - the state of the subject's absorption by the subject of activity, distraction from secondary conditions and objects that are not related to him;

Increased productivity of cognitive and executive activity;

Selectivity (selectivity) of information. This criterion is expressed in the ability to actively perceive, remember, analyze only part of the incoming information, as well as in responding to a limited range of external stimuli;

Clarity and distinctness of the content of consciousness, which is in the field of attention.

Historically, it is customary to define attention as the direction of consciousness and its concentration on certain objects. However, if we try to generalize the entire phenomenology of attention, then we can come to the following definition: Attention is the implementation of the selection of the necessary information, the provision of electoral programs of action and the maintenance of constant control over their course. Representatives of the neurophysiological line of research traditionally associate attention with the concepts of dominant, activation, and orienting response. The concept of "dominant" was introduced by the Russian physiologist A.A. Ukhtomsky. According to him, excitement is distributed unevenly throughout the nervous system. Each activity can create foci of optimal excitation in the nervous system, which become dominant. They not only dominate and inhibit other foci of nervous excitement, but even intensify under the influence of the action of extraneous excitations. It is this characteristic of the dominant that allowed Ukhtomsky to regard it as a physiological mechanism of attention. The selective nature of the course of mental processes is possible only in a state of wakefulness, which is provided by a special structure of the brain - the reticular formation. Selective activation is provided by the descending influences of the reticular formation, the fibers of which begin in the cerebral cortex and are directed to the motor nuclei of the spinal cord. The separation of the reticular formation from the cerebral cortex leads to a decrease in tone and induces sleep. Disturbances in the functioning of the reticular formation lead to disturbances in attention. The phenomena and manifestations of attention are so diverse that it is possible to distinguish its types on different grounds. For example, W. James distinguishes the following types of attention, guided by three bases: 1) sensory (sensory) and mental (intellectual); 2) direct, if the object is interesting in itself, and derivative (mediated); 3) involuntary, or passive, requiring no effort, and voluntary (active), accompanied by a feeling of effort. It is the latter approach that has proven especially popular. Classification on the basis of arbitrariness is the most traditional: the division of attention into voluntary and involuntary, historians of psychology find already in Aristotle. In accordance with the degree of participation of will in focusing attention N.F. Dobrynin identified three types of attention: involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary.

Involuntary attention

Involuntary attention is drawn to something without the intention to do so and does not require volitional efforts. It, in turn, can be subdivided into forced (natural, innate or instinctive, determined by species experience), involuntary, which depends, rather, on individual experience, and habitual, conditioned by attitudes, intention and readiness to perform some kind of activity.

By its origin, it is most of all associated with "orienting reflexes" (IP Pavlov). The reasons that cause involuntary attention lie primarily in the peculiarities of external influences - stimuli.

1. These features include the strength of the stimulus. Strong stimuli (bright light, intense colors, loud sounds, harsh odors) easily attract attention, since, according to the law of force, the stronger the stimulus, the more significant the excitement it causes.

2. Not only the absolute, but also the relative strength of irritation is of great importance, i.e. the ratio of the strength of this impact with the strength of other, background, stimuli. No matter how strong the stimulus may be, it may not attract attention if given against the background of other strong stimuli. In the noise of a big city, individual, even loud, sounds remain out of our attention, although they easily attract him when they are heard in silence at night. On the other hand, even the weakest stimuli become an object of attention if they are given against the background of a complete absence of other stimuli: the slightest noise in complete silence around, a very weak light in the dark, etc.

3. In all these cases, the decisive factor is the contrast between the stimuli. It can relate not only to the strength of stimuli, but also to their other features. A person involuntarily pays attention to any significant difference: in shape, size, color, duration of action, etc. A small object stands out more easily from a large one; long sound - among abrupt, short sounds; the colored circle is among the whites. The number is visible among the letters; foreign word - in the Russian text; the triangle is next to the squares.

4. To a large extent, attention is drawn to abrupt or repetitive changes in stimuli, significant changes in the appearance of well-known people, things, periodic intensification or weakening of sound, light, etc. The movement of objects is perceived in a similar way.

5. An important source of involuntary attention is the novelty of objects and phenomena. The stereotypical, stereotypical, repetitive does not attract attention. The new, however, easily becomes the object of attention - to the extent that it can be understood. For this, the new must find support in the past experience.

6. Called by external stimuli, involuntary attention is essentially determined by the state of the person himself. The same objects or phenomena may become an object of attention or not attract it, depending on what the state of a person is at the moment. An important role is played by the needs and interests of people, their attitude to what affects them. The object of involuntary attention easily becomes everything that is associated with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of a person's needs (both organic, material, and spiritual, cultural), everything that corresponds to his interests, to which he has a definite, clearly expressed and especially emotional attitude. Anyone who is interested in sports will pay attention to the poster informing about the sports competition, the musician's attention will be attracted by the announcement of the concert, etc.

7. A significant role is played by the mood and emotional state of a person, to a large extent determining the choice of the object of attention.

8. The physical condition of a person is essential. In a state of extreme fatigue, something that easily attracts attention in a vigorous state is often not noticed.

Arbitrary attention, which was often called volitional attention, is drawn to the object and is held on it with a conscious intention to do this and requires volitional efforts, therefore it was sometimes considered a stage of conflict, a waste of nervous energy. It is attracted and held in spite of the factors of involuntary attention (not a new, not a strong stimulus, not related to basic needs, etc.), and is socially conditioned. Its formation, according to L.S. Vygotsky, begins with an adult's pointing gesture, organizing the child's attention with the help of external means. It has a pronounced conscious, strong-willed character and is observed with the deliberate performance of any activity. It is a prerequisite for work, training, work in general. For the effective implementation of any activity, expediency, concentration, focus and organization, the ability to distract from what is insignificant for obtaining the intended result are always necessary. Thanks to voluntary attention, people can do not only what they are directly interested in, captures, excites, but also what does not have direct attraction, but is necessary. The less a person is carried away by work, the more volitional efforts are required to focus attention. The reason that causes and maintains voluntary attention is the awareness of the importance of the object of attention for the performance of this activity, the satisfaction of needs, while with involuntary attention, the meaning of the object may not be realized.

Making significant efforts to get involved in work, for example, starting to solve a complex geometric problem, the student, having found interesting ways to solve it, can get so carried away by the work that volitional efforts will become unnecessary, although the consciously set goal will remain. This kind of attention was named by N.F. Dobrynin's post-spontaneous attention. For a person whose work is creative, this form of attention is very characteristic. A decrease in volitional tension during post-voluntary attention may be the result of the development of work skills, especially the habit of working with concentration in a certain mode.

8. Criteria for attention and inattention

A person does not process all the information coming from the outside world, and does not react to all influences. Among the variety of stimuli, they select only those that are related to their needs and interests, expectations and attitudes, goals and objectives - for example, loud sounds and bright flashes attract attention not because of their increased intensity, but because such a reaction is responsible the living creature's needs for security. Due to the fact that attention is focused only on certain objects and only on the performance of certain tasks, the place of attention in a particular psychological concept depends on the importance attached to the activity of the subject of mental activity.

In psychology, it is customary to distinguish the following criteria for attention:

External reactions - motor and autonomic reactions that provide conditions for better signal perception. These include turning the head, fixing the eyes, facial expressions and posture of concentration, holding the breath, vegetative components;

Concentration on the performance of a certain activity - the state of the subject's absorption by the subject of activity, distraction from secondary, non-related conditions and objects;

Increased productivity of cognitive and executive activity;

Selectivity (selectivity) of information. This criterion is expressed in the ability to actively perceive, remember, analyze only part of the incoming information, as well as in responding to a limited range of external stimuli;

Clarity and distinctness of the content of consciousness, which is in the field of attention.

Historically, it is customary to define attention as the direction of consciousness and its concentration on certain objects. However, if we try to generalize the entire phenomenology of attention, then we can come to the following definition: Attention is the implementation of the selection of the necessary information, the provision of electoral programs of action and the maintenance of constant control over their course. Representatives of the neurophysiological line of research traditionally associate attention with the concepts of dominant, activation, and orienting response. The concept of "dominant" was introduced by the Russian physiologist A.A. Ukhtomsky. According to him, excitement is distributed unevenly throughout the nervous system. Each activity can create foci of optimal excitation in the nervous system, which become dominant. They not only dominate and inhibit other foci of nervous excitement, but even intensify under the influence of the action of extraneous excitations. It is this characteristic of the dominant that allowed Ukhtomsky to regard it as a physiological mechanism of attention. The selective nature of the course of mental processes is possible only in a state of wakefulness, which is provided by a special structure of the brain - the reticular formation. Selective activation is provided by the descending influences of the reticular formation, the fibers of which begin in the cerebral cortex and are directed to the motor nuclei of the spinal cord. The separation of the reticular formation from the cerebral cortex leads to a decrease in tone and induces sleep. Disturbances in the functioning of the reticular formation lead to disturbances in attention. The phenomena and manifestations of attention are so diverse that it is possible to distinguish its types on different grounds. For example, W. James distinguishes the following types of attention, guided by three bases: 1) sensory (sensory) and mental (intellectual); 2) direct, if the object is interesting in itself, and derivative (mediated); 3) involuntary, or passive, requiring no effort, and voluntary (active), accompanied by a feeling of effort. It is the latter approach that has proven especially popular. Classification on the basis of arbitrariness is the most traditional: the division of attention into voluntary and involuntary, historians of psychology find already in Aristotle. In accordance with the degree of participation of will when focusing attention N.F. Dobrynin identified three types of attention: involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary.

Involuntary attention

Involuntary attention is drawn to something without the intention to do so and does not require volitional efforts. It, in turn, can be subdivided into forced (natural, innate or instinctive, determined by species experience), involuntary, which depends, rather, on individual experience, and habitual, conditioned by attitudes, intention and readiness to perform some kind of activity.

By its origin, it is most of all associated with "orienting reflexes" (IP Pavlov). The reasons that cause involuntary attention lie primarily in the peculiarities of external influences - stimuli.

1. These features include the strength of the stimulus. Strong stimuli (bright light, intense colors, loud sounds, harsh odors) easily attract attention, since, according to the law of force, the stronger the stimulus, the more significant the excitement it causes.

2. Not only the absolute, but also the relative strength of irritation is of great importance, i.e. the ratio of the strength of this impact with the strength of other, background, stimuli. No matter how strong the stimulus may be, it may not attract attention if given against the background of other strong stimuli. In the noise of a big city, individual, even loud, sounds remain out of our attention, although they easily attract him when they are heard in silence at night. On the other hand, even the weakest stimuli become an object of attention if they are given against the background of a complete absence of other stimuli: the slightest noise in complete silence around, a very weak light in the dark, etc.

3. In all these cases, the decisive factor is the contrast between the stimuli. It can relate not only to the strength of stimuli, but also to their other features. A person involuntarily pays attention to any significant difference: in shape, size, color, duration of action, etc. A small object stands out more easily from a large one; long sound - among abrupt, short sounds; the colored circle is among the whites. The number is visible among the letters; foreign word - in the Russian text; the triangle is next to the squares.

4. To a large extent, attention is drawn to abrupt or repetitive changes in stimuli, significant changes in the appearance of well-known people, things, periodic intensification or weakening of sound, light, etc. The movement of objects is perceived in a similar way.

5. An important source of involuntary attention is the novelty of objects and phenomena. The stereotypical, stereotypical, repetitive does not attract attention. The new, however, easily becomes the object of attention - to the extent that it can be understood. For this, the new must find support in the past experience.

6. Called by external stimuli, involuntary attention is essentially determined by the state of the person himself. The same objects or phenomena may become an object of attention or not attract it, depending on what the state of a person is at the moment. An important role is played by the needs and interests of people, their attitude to what affects them. The object of involuntary attention easily becomes everything that is associated with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of a person's needs (both organic, material, and spiritual, cultural), everything that corresponds to his interests, to which he has a definite, clearly expressed and especially emotional attitude. Anyone who is interested in sports will pay attention to the poster informing about the sports competition, the musician's attention will be attracted by the announcement of the concert, etc.

7. A significant role is played by the mood and emotional state of a person, to a large extent determining the choice of the object of attention.

8. The physical condition of a person is essential. In a state of extreme fatigue, something that easily attracts attention in a vigorous state is often not noticed.

Arbitrary attention, which was often called volitional attention, is drawn to the object and is held on it with a conscious intention to do this and requires volitional efforts, therefore it was sometimes considered a stage of conflict, a waste of nervous energy. It is attracted and held in spite of the factors of involuntary attention (not a new, not a strong stimulus, not related to basic needs, etc.), and is socially conditioned. Its formation, according to L.S. Vygotsky, begins with an adult's pointing gesture, organizing the child's attention with the help of external means. It has a pronounced conscious, strong-willed character and is observed with the deliberate performance of any activity. It is a prerequisite for work, training, work in general. For the effective implementation of any activity, expediency, concentration, focus and organization, the ability to distract from what is insignificant for obtaining the intended result are always necessary. Thanks to voluntary attention, people can do not only what they are directly interested in, captures, excites, but also what does not have direct attraction, but is necessary. The less a person is carried away by work, the more volitional efforts are required to focus attention. The reason that causes and maintains voluntary attention is the awareness of the importance of the object of attention for the performance of this activity, the satisfaction of needs, while with involuntary attention, the meaning of the object may not be realized.

Making significant efforts to get involved in work, for example, starting to solve a complex geometric problem, the student, having found interesting ways to solve it, can get so carried away by the work that volitional efforts will become unnecessary, although the consciously set goal will remain. This kind of attention was named by N.F. Dobrynin's post-spontaneous attention. For a person whose work is creative, this form of attention is very characteristic. A decrease in volitional tension during post-voluntary attention may be the result of the development of work skills, especially the habit of working with concentration in a certain mode.

Conclusion

In accordance with the principle of limited consciousness, only a small part of the information coming to a person passes into his conscious experience. This feature of consciousness is associated with attention. Attention has no content of its own; it is the dynamic side of all cognitive processes. Attention - the focus and concentration of consciousness, involves an increase in the level of sensory, intellectual or motor activity of the individual. The focus of attention is manifested in selectivity, in an arbitrary or involuntary choice, in the selection of objects that correspond to the needs of the subject, the goals and objectives of his activity. Concentration (concentration) on some objects presupposes a distraction from everything that is outside. Perceived becomes clearer and more distinct. Depending on the object of concentration (perceived objects, thoughts, movements, etc.), forms of attention are distinguished: sensory (perceptual), intellectual, motor (motor).

By the nature of the origin and by the methods of implementation, two main types (levels) of attention are distinguished: involuntary and voluntary. Each of the forms of attention can manifest itself at different levels. In addition to the arbitrary, one more special type of it is sometimes distinguished - post-arbitrary.

Literature

1. Gamezo M.V., Domashenko I.A. Atlas of Psychology. M., 2007.

Forms of subject perception. The variety of receptor apparatuses and influences, in relation to which these receptors turn out to be sensitive, determines the existence of various sensations as primary forms of mental reflection. The classification of receptors can be made according to the nature of the interaction with the stimulus: distant (auditory, visual, olfactory) and contact (temperature, ...