Where fascism, one of the main ideologies of the Second World War, arose, you will learn from this article.

Where did fascism originate?

Many people today associate the word fascism with World War II Germany and Hitler. However, this ideology and movement originated in Italy. The term “fascism” itself has Italian roots. It is derived from the Italian "fascio", which means union.

is the founder of fascism. At one time, he headed the National Fascist Party and served as Prime Minister of Italy from 1922 to 1943.

That is why Italy is the country where fascism and its regime were established first. Several factors contributed to this. The fact is that after the end of the First World War, Italy was gripped by a wave of deep social upheavals, which ended only in 1922, when fascism came to power with a totalitarian form of government. Italy became the first country where specialized units began to be created to actively fight communists and crime. A fighter from such a detachment was called a fascist, and the movement itself was called fascism.

Italian fascism was strongly associated with the idea of ​​war and the seizure of power and its retention in the strong hands of the ruler. Benito Mussolini understood that he would not be able to independently create a formidable and strong empire without an alliance with Germany, which was quickly recovering after the First World War. Therefore, he agreed to rapprochement with her, the result of which was a military-political union of two states - Italy and Germany.

In the field of ideology, fascism in Italy showed particular activity. Their own system of values ​​was rapidly introduced into the consciousness of the masses of the population - this is the cult of strength, war and reckless obedience. Even the spiritual life of the country was subject to total control by the authorities. In general, the activities of the fascist regime represented a service to the strong idea of ​​the nation and national greatness. For these purposes, a corporate doctrine was developed. Where it was argued that the nation, as a political and moral entity, realizes itself only in a fascist state, which in turn will ensure the cooperation of different classes of “producers” (that is, workers and capitalists) “in the name of common national interests.”

The Italian nation was proclaimed the direct heir of Ancient Rome, its imperial traditions and military power. In the 30s, Italians were declared an Aryan race, and active propaganda of racism began. The so-called racial laws were even issued in 1938, which denied other nationalities access to scientific institutions.

This is at once an ideology, a political movement and a state regime aimed at destroying democratic principles and freedoms.

The ideology of fascism is anti-communism, racism (sorting peoples into “superior” and “inferior”), chauvinism (preaching national exclusivity), the emergence of a cult of the leader (leader), violence, control over the individual, total state power, militarization (building up military power) , aggression (use of force against the independence of other states or peoples), rejection of humanism, nationalism.

This ideology was supported by many. Even Pope Pius XI was delighted that Mussolini was not bothered by the “prejudices of liberalism.”

Social and political roots and essence of fascism

The desire for dictatorship existed even before the word “fascism” appeared. This concept was created by the global economic crisis of the 1930s., as an opportunity for monopolists to save their position in society, their fear of communism and the search for a ruler who could solve all social problems (get rid of poverty, hunger, unemployment, etc.).

The origins of fascism began in Western Europe. The first in this were Italy and Germany, where the fascists managed not only to form their own party with a clearly formulated program, but also to come to power.

The social basis of fascism was lies and demagoguery. The fascists talked about the need to eliminate class inequality and promised to end unemployment and economic crises. This deception was aimed at the middle class, who had lost their jobs and life prospects. Officials and military personnel, police officers and security guards, gendarmes and workers became fascists. Hitler assured that he would give citizens the same rights and responsibilities. He swore an oath to defend and uphold the laws of the republic.

Dreams of conquering the whole world or most of it and dominating it did not interfere with the international economic relations of the fascists. Moreover, their cooperation (political and military) with other countries began with the economy.

The monopolies that sponsor it became the backbone of fascism. For example, all “coal and steel” concerns in Germany paid a mandatory contribution in the form of a tax to the presidential election campaign (1932), and the three million Thyssen marks (head of the “Steel Trust”) transferred to the Nazis during the elections helped Hitler’s propaganda achieve staggering sizes. The Nazi Party in return gave them the opportunity to remain in power and dream of ending the strikes and world domination.

Prerequisites for the emergence of fascism:

These are: dissatisfaction with the results of the 1st World War, reparations, territorial possessions secured by the Treaty of Versailles, a thirst for a revision of the Versailles-Washington system and the redivision of the world.

Causes of fascism:

• consequences of the global economic crisis (in economics, politics and social sphere): people believed the promises of the fascists that their ideology would give a better life
• fear of communism: Western monopolists could not allow the emergence of a system similar to Soviet Russia. Fascism directly opposed this.

The history of the origins of fascism

The thesis “fascism,” when confronted with it, is perceived as a curse, although its translation and meaning do not represent anything terrible or terrible. Initially, this is just an “alliance”, “unification”, i.e. a word that does not have the content that will appear in it later.

The roots of the Italian word "fascism" are of Latin origin: in ancient Rome, lictors (guards of the consul) carried bundles of rods called "fascis". Many socialists, republicans and trade unionists of the 19th century used the thesis "fascio" - "union" to distinguish their groups.

In the first decades of the 20th century, the rightists called themselves “union,” which in 1917 united to form the Union of National Defense.

In 1915, the “Union of Revolutionary Actions” was formed, and in 1919, the militant “Union of Struggle” of Mussolini, from former front-line soldiers (radical right/fascist/ movement). It was called "Black Legion". In 1921 "unions" united, creating the "National Fascist Party" (NFP)

Thus, history of fascism in Western Europe begins with the formation of the fascist movement in Italy, led by Benito Mussolini, who considered war the highest manifestation of the human spirit, and revolution an explosion of violence.

Prerequisites for the emergence of fascism in Italy were determined by the situation that arose after the First World War. The country was among the winners, but was defeated, since it was quite seriously “deprived” by the Treaty of Versailles. Mussolini's dreams of redividing the world formed the basis for defining the ultimate goal that his party was to achieve.

The NFP of Italy was compared with the Escherich organization of Austria, the Volunteer Corps of Germany, and the “whites” of Russia, Hungary and Bavaria. Lenin equated them with the Russian “Black Hundreds,” which gave rise to a tendency to call all anti-revolutionary movements in Russia “fascist.” Although some communists (for example, Palmiro Togliatti, Antonio Gramsci, Clara Zetkin) argued that it was impossible to call all movements directed against democracy and communism “fascist”, since in this case it was difficult to consider the specifics of Italian fascism.

The history of German fascism originates around the same time, but in the Land of the Soviets, after the V World Congress of the Comintern (1924), it was decided not only to differentiate the true manifestations of fascism, but also to call all parties of a non-communist nature “fascist”. So, for example, all social democratic parties were classified as fascist only because they defended parliamentary democracy.

An attempt to clarify this was made by Georgiy Dimitrov in 1935. during the VII World Congress of the Comintern. But no one paid attention to her.

History of German fascism, like Italian, it is rooted in the crisis of the economy and social life after the 1st World War.

Reasons for the emergence of fascism in Germany these are: dissatisfaction with the results of the war (the idea of ​​​​creating a Great State), social discontent due to the decline of the economy (unemployment up to 50%, production reduction by 40%, strikes), fear of the communist movement (ready to seize power), reparations, restrictions, prohibitions and territorial changes of the Treaty of Versailles.

All this led to the creation of paramilitary “voluntary” formations with a semi-fascist character. One of them was the “German Workers' Party”, in which, thanks to the support of Captain E. Rehm in Munich, Adolf Hitler quickly found himself in the leadership from an agitator, renaming it the “National Socialist German Workers' Party”.

Soon enough, not only in Italy and Germany, but also in many other countries, the fascist movement acquired an organized character, action programs took shape, and numerous parties were formed.

It is with them that the further history of the emergence of fascism, which covered many other European countries, is connected. However, in each country fascism had its own specifics. All of them were initially different economically and socially. Only their political situation was similar: democracy here was not stable. In addition to Italy and Germany, these were Spain, Austria and Hungary, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia, Hungary and Romania, Finland, Poland and Lithuania. Thus, the interwar period became the “era of fascism.”

The history of German fascism differs from others in its preconditions laid down in the economy and social sphere: the social support of fascism in Germany was not the impoverished layers of the rural population, as in Italy, but the layers of small entrepreneurs ruined and declassified by the economic crisis. Fascism in these countries had more differences than similarities.

The emergence of fascism was encouraged by the governments of these countries, but only in some of them did fascists occupy leadership positions at the top of power. Therefore, in each of the countries listed above and those not listed (France, England, USA), fascism took different forms, manifesting itself to a greater or lesser extent.

In Soviet literature, almost all countries of the world (from Austria to Japan) are described as “fascist”. This seriously eroded the very concept of “fascism”, turning it into a dirty word, and not noticing some similarities between communist and fascist parties (for example, in the unacceptability of parliamentary democracy, the practice of power). Of course, they cannot be identified because of the global differences in the structure of power, goals and social systems to which they led.

A detailed history of German, French, Italian and many others fascism is posted in separate articles.

National specificity of fascism

In Italy– it was totalitarianism (full control of the state), the creation of a “corporate state” (where class struggle was abolished), dreams of how the Mediterranean Sea would turn into an “Italian lake”, and an empire would be created in Africa (the revival of the “greatness of ancient Rome”)

In Germany- it was Nazism with plans to liquidate the Treaties of Versailles and Saint-Germain, seize numerous lands and colonies and create Great Germany on them.

In England and France fascism was considered a measure to strengthen capitalism, and the coming war was considered a means of getting rid of the hated Soviet Union. But there was no direct threat to the monopolies, and they preferred to preserve democratic forms in the state structure, leaving the fascist groups a “bench.”

Fascist dictatorships were able to arise only in a few states. The forms of dictatorships came in different forms: fascist, monarcho-fascist, semi-fascist, military dictatorship. Sometimes the names were generated by the locality (“sanation” in Poland).

In Bulgaria, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Romania At the same time, parliaments were not dissolved, but they served dictatorships, and only a small fraction of voting rights remained (this is how they were curtailed).

In Spain During the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, the Cortes were disbanded.

In Yugoslavia after the coup (1929) the People's Assembly was liquidated. The Italian Duce ruled the country while maintaining the power of the king.

A strong base of fascism developed only in Germany and Italy. Here “Führerism” appeared - the power of dictators not limited by laws. There were no “Führers” in other states. Pilsudski (Poland) and several rulers in Latin America were similar.

The dictatorship of a number of countries had a monarcho-fascist form, that is, it relied on the power of the king (in Greece and Yugoslavia), the tsar (in Bulgaria), and the emperor (in Japan).

The differences between fascism in different countries came down to the degree of severity of racism, chauvinism, rejection of communists and Soviet Russia as a whole, as well as the destruction of those who were against it.

Fascism (Italian) fascismo from fascio“bundle, bundle, association”) - as a political science term, is a general name for specific far-right political movements, their ideology, as well as the dictatorial-type political regimes they lead.

In a narrower historical sense, fascism refers to a mass political movement that existed in Italy in the 1920s - early 1940s under the leadership of B. Mussolini.

In ideology, historiography and propaganda in the USSR, other socialist countries and communist parties, fascism was also understood as the Nazi movement in Germany in the 20s - the first half of the 40s. XX century (see Nazism), as well as political movements in countries around the world that openly oppose communist ideology from extreme right-wing positions.

The main characteristics of fascism are: the dominance of right-wing ideology, traditionalism, radical nationalism, anti-communism, statism, corporatism, elements of populism, militarism, often leaderism, reliance on a fairly significant part of the population not belonging to the ruling classes. In some cases, fascism is characterized by rejection of the monarchy.

Fascist states are characterized by the presence of a developed economy with a strong regulatory role of the state, the nationalization of all aspects of society through the creation of a system of mass organizations, violent methods of suppressing dissent, and rejection of the principles of liberal democracy.

Fascism. Emergence and formation

Fascism arose in Italy in 1919 after the First World War out of deep disappointment with its results. Then in Europe, democratic cosmopolitan forces won a victory over conservative monarchical ones, but the victory of democracy did not bring the promised benefits, and a severe crisis erupted: chaos, inflation, mass unemployment. And a reaction began against such democracy. By the 1930s. gg. half of the European parliaments ceased to exist, dictatorships arose everywhere - this phenomenon was remarkable for those years.

Fascism comes from the word “fascina”, this is a bundle, a bunch of rods - a symbol of the ancient Roman state, which Mussolini used as the symbolism of the “new Rome”, as he called his state. And, in general, at first glance there was a lot of attractiveness in fascism.

Fascism as a bundle proclaimed the unity of the nation in contrast to the Marxist thesis of class struggle and in contrast to the liberal-democratic party principle. Fascism proclaimed a corporate state, built not on the party principle, when parties participate in elections and gain votes, but built on corporations - this is a natural democracy, growing from the bottom up, on the basis of the industrial, professional community of people. Corporations can be, say, workers in the metallurgical industry, medicine, agriculture, and each corporation includes both management personnel and doctors, accountants, electricians, in short, all the people who are involved in it. In Japan now something similar exists on a corporate basis: the company is built as a unit of society; Mussolini wanted about the same thing, calling it “industrial democracy.” By the way, fascism was considered - no matter how strange it may sound - to be a democratic phenomenon, even by our democrats like G. Fedotov, a famous publicist and church historian, and his magazine “Novy Grad” wrote a lot about it.

What attracted fascism? why so many people succumbed to this temptation - to see in fascism something truly new, transforming the whole of Europe against the backdrop of this chaos. Here is an example from Mussolini's "Doctrine of Fascism":

“Fascism is ... a spiritual position that arose from the general movement of our century against the enfeebled materialist positivism of the 19th century ... It is a religious view that considers man in his inner connection with a higher law, an objective spirit that transcends the individual and makes him conscious a member of a spiritual community... A people is not a race or a geographical area...

It should be emphasized that in the original fascism there was no racism, which was in the Hitler regime; Italians did not consider their people better than others and a superior nation to which the world should belong, which should be conquered.

“A people is not a race or a geographical area, but a community continuously preserved in historical development, ... a personality, a spiritual phenomenon.” And further about what demands fascism made on a person: “The man of fascism suppresses in himself the instinct of selfish desire in order, instead, in a sense of duty to root the highest life of the nation, not limited by the boundaries of space and time: a life in which the individual, through self-denial and sacrifice of personal interests, even through death - realizes an extremely spiritual existence, on which his human dignity is based... Not a single action escapes moral assessment. Therefore, life in the concept of a fascist is serious, strict, religious. He creates from himself an instrument for building a decent life...”

As we see, this disciplinary, collecting, orderly principle in fascism against the backdrop of chaos and unemployment - it attracted a lot of people. And it should even be noted that the Catholic Church very ardently supported fascist reforms and the fascist movement itself, because it corresponded to social Catholic teaching, which is based on the corporate structure of society.

I will cite here V. Novikov’s introductory article to B. Mussolini’s book “The Doctrine of Fascism,” published in Paris in 1938. It perfectly characterizes the mood of the Russian emigration of those years:

“The greatest phenomenon in the life of the peoples of the post-war period is fascism, which is currently making its victorious journey throughout the world, conquering the minds of the active forces of mankind and prompting a revision and restructuring of the entire social order.”

Fascism originated in Italy and its creator is the brilliant leader of the fascist party and head of the Italian government, Benito Mussolini.

In the struggle of the Italian people against the nightmare of Red Communism looming over the country, fascism gave the Italian youth, the foremost fighters for national revival, the ideological basis for this struggle.

The communist ideology was opposed by the new ideology of the nation state, national solidarity, and national pathos.

Thanks to this, fascism created a powerful organization of an active minority, which, in the name of the national ideal, entered into a decisive war with the entire old world of communism, socialism, liberalism, democracy and, with its selfless feat, carried out a spiritual and state revolution that transformed modern Italy and marked the beginning of the Italian fascist statehood.

Having marched on Rome in October 1922, fascism seized state power and began to re-educate the people and reorganize the state, in the order of fundamental laws that finally consolidated the form of the fascist state. During this struggle, the doctrine of fascism was developed. In the charter of the fascist party, in the resolutions of party and trade union congresses, in the resolutions of the Great Fascist Council in the speeches and articles of Benito Mussolini, the main provisions of fascism were gradually formulated. In 1932, Mussolini considered it timely to give his teaching a complete formulation, which he did in his work “The Doctrine of Fascism,” placed in the 14th volume of the Italian Encyclopedia. For a separate edition of this work, he supplemented it with notes. It is very important for the Russian reader to get acquainted with this work of B. Mussolini. Fascism is a new worldview, a new philosophy, a new corporate economy, a new government doctrine. Thus, answering all the questions of human society, fascism went beyond the boundaries of national Italy. In it, general provisions were developed and found their formulation that define the emerging social structure of the 20th century, and why they acquired universal significance. In other words, the ideological content of fascism has become common property. Every people has its own nationalism, and creates the forms of its own existence; no imitation of even the best examples is acceptable. But the basic ideas of Italian fascism fertilize state building throughout the world. Currently, the ideas of fascism are widespread among the Russian emigration.

A careful study of fascism began around 1924, when an attempt was made to organize the Russian Fascist Party in Serbia. This movement was led by Prof. D.P. Ruzsky and gene. P.V. Chersky.

In 1927, this so-called “national organization of Russian fascists” published its program, which, based on the general provisions of Italian fascism, but in accordance with Russian conditions, outlined the path of the revolutionary struggle against Bolshevism and the future course of restoration of Russia liberated from communism.

However, this movement did not receive organizational development. But the ideas of fascism spread to the Far East, where the Russian emigration managed to use them and create the Russian Fascist Party in 1931, headed by a young and talented man V.K. Rodzaevsky.

Until now, R.F.P. developed extensive organizational and propaganda work, publishing the daily newspaper “Our Way” and the monthly magazine “Nation”.

At the 3rd Congress in 1935, a new party program was adopted, which represents an attempt to adapt the principles of universal fascism to Russian reality in matters of the future structure of the Russian state.

It should be noted, however, that the ideology of Russian fascism in the Far East is strongly influenced by German National Socialism and has recently been veering towards the old Russian nationalism.

But in Europe, Russian fascist thought continues to develop and its representative is the magazine "Cry", published in Belgium.

In development of the 1927 program, "Cry" published a brochure by its employee Verista (pseudonym); "Basic principles of Russian fascism." In it, the author, under the slogan of Russian fascism “God, Nation and Labor,” establishes the general provisions of Russian fascism, which is a doctrine of the national revival of Russia on the basis of a new national statehood, formulated and approved on the experience of the Italian Empire by the creator of the fascist doctrine and leader of Italian fascism B. Mussolini. With such interest of the Russian emigration in fascist teaching, one should welcome the publishing house "Renaissance", which wished to offer to the attention of the Russian reader the "Doctrine of Fascism" by B. Mussolini.

For his part, the translator considers it his duty to express his deep gratitude to B. Mussolini for his kind consent to publish the Russian translation of “The Doctrine of Fascism.”

Ivan Aleksandrovich Ilyin, our outstanding philosopher, gave a very good formulation of the experience of knowledge of fascist regimes by Russian emigration. He wrote that the Russians had no need to borrow all this, even valuable things that were in the authoritarian regimes of that time, directly from them, from foreign fascism; on the contrary, he wrote, fascism unconsciously sought to realize an ideal close to the Russian one. Quote:

“The state is not a mechanism of competing interests, but an organism of fraternal service, unity of faith, honor and sacrifice: this is the historical and political basis of Russia. Russia began to move away from it and was crushed. Russia will return to it again. Fascism does not give us a new idea, but only new attempts to implement this Christian, Russian national idea in our own way in relation to our conditions.”

Now everyone calls Germany of those years fascist, but the regime itself did not call itself fascist, it was National Socialism. And it was precisely the word “socialism”, the fact that there was, as it were, a socialist component in the name of this criminal regime - this was very unpleasant for left-wing journalists and, naturally, for the Soviet propaganda organs, and therefore the word fascism was very quickly pulled onto Nazism.

But the difference here is cardinal. It is that the Nazi regime was racist and set the goal of mastering the world for the German nation; all other peoples had to be either destroyed or turned into slaves. The fascists did not set themselves such goals and, for example, such a liberal figure in the Orthodox Parisian jurisdiction, a historian of the Church, like Kartashev, after the war, when the fascists had already lost everything, and it was already a utopia to make such plans, said that two countries remained - Spain and Portugal, where the principles of Christian statehood are embodied in a new way. It was brave to say this after the war, but he said it honestly. So it would be more correct for us today to say: “Victory over Nazism, not over fascism.”

The war and the events that followed it led to the intensification of nationalist movements in a number of European countries. In some cases, nationalism was used as a means of mobilizing people to achieve military victory. In others it was necessary to strengthen the foundations of newly independent states. Those who were defeated in the war or considered themselves offended and were looking for those “to blame” also turned to him. The common basis of nationalist sentiments were the ideas of exclusivity and superiority of one people over others. Often they developed into a feeling of national enmity and intolerance. During the period under review, these ideas became widespread in the social and political life of a number of countries. In some cases this has had far-reaching historical consequences.

The emergence of the fascist movement in Italy

Since March 1919, “Fasci di combattimento” (“Combat alliances”) began to be created in Italy. Their participants (mostly former front-line soldiers) were united by extremely nationalistic, chauvinistic views, rejection of socialist ideas, and a desire for strong power. The movement was headed by B. Mussolini, who by that time had a certain political fame.

Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) born into a family of artisans. In his youth he joined the Socialist Party. He began his public activities as an eloquent speaker and journalist. He published the newspaper “Class Struggle”, where he criticized “everyone and everything”: the monarchy, militarism, the rich, social reformists, etc. Ambitious and assertive, Mussolini soon achieved the post of editor-in-chief of the central newspaper of the socialist party “Avanti!” (“Forward!”), from which he was released in 1914 for campaigning in favor of Italy’s entry into the war (the Socialist Party at that time opposed the war). A month later, Mussolini began publishing the newspaper Popolo d'Italia (People of Italy), where he criticized the policies of the Socialist Party. Now he relied on the ideas of national greatness of Italy. Having visited the front, Mussolini assumed the guise of a hero, a defender of the interests of the offended nation (the judgment that Italy was undeservedly “bypassed” in the division of spoils by the countries that won the world war was very popular at that time). Having moved to other political positions, Mussolini did not change in the main thing - the desire to get to the top. This time the springboard was to be the nascent fascist movement.

The program of the initially small organization of fascists was designed to win the support of the broad masses. It contained the following demands: abolition of the Senate, police, privileges and titles; universal suffrage, guarantees of civil liberties; convening of the Constituent Assembly; abolition of secret diplomacy and general disarmament; progressive capital tax; establishing an 8-hour working day and a minimum wage; participation of workers in the technical management of enterprises; transfer of land to peasants; prohibition of labor for children under 16 years of age; universal education and free libraries, etc.

Along with agitation, the movement used other methods to strengthen its positions. In the fall of 1919, the fascists began to create armed detachments, which included front-line officers, nationalist-minded small property owners, and students. They attacked participants in workers' demonstrations and carried out pogroms in the editorial offices of socialist newspapers (the editorial office of the Avanti! newspaper was also destroyed). During the period of rising workers' protests, the fascists put forward the task of “fighting against Bolshevism.” The nationalist and anti-worker orientation of the movement and calls for strong government attracted the attention of ruling circles. The movement began to receive financial support. This inspired the fascists even more.

In the first half of 1921, fascist troops destroyed and set fire to 119 chambers of labor, 59 people's houses, 107 premises of cooperatives, 83 buildings of peasant leagues, 141 premises of sections and circles of workers' parties, 28 trade union committees, and the editorial offices of many workers' newspapers. Mussolini subsequently justified these actions by “the highest national interests”: “We needed to pave our way through violence, through sacrifice, through blood, in order to establish the order and discipline so desired by the masses, and it was impossible to achieve this with sloppy propaganda.”

The rise of the fascists to power

In the fall of 1921, the movement took shape into the National Fascist Party, which began an open struggle for power in the country. Workers and socialist organizations staged protest strikes, and armed clashes between workers and fascists took place in a number of cities. Mussolini demanded that the fascists be given seats in the government. He stated: “We fascists are not going to go to power through the back door, now the question of power becomes a question of strength.”

On October 28, 1922, armed columns of fascists dressed in black shirts set out on a “march on Rome.” The central government lacked the resolve to fight. With the consent of King Victor Emmanuel, Mussolini took over as Prime Minister of Italy on October 30. On the same day, the Nazis triumphantly marched through the central streets and squares of the Eternal City. At the same time, pogroms began in working-class neighborhoods. The new government did not want to waste time.

In the following years, a system of totalitarian fascist state was created in Italy. Power was concentrated in the hands of the Duce (leader) Mussolini. Parliament turned into only its appendage. All political parties and organizations, except the fascist one, were dissolved and outlawed, and many of their leaders were brutally murdered. The Law “On the Defense of the State” introduced the death penalty for opponents of the regime. The fascist “national security police” became part of the state machine.

Gradually, strict state control was established in the economic sphere. This was achieved by creating a system of production corporations, which included representatives of entrepreneurs and trade unions that had undergone fascisation. Official propaganda claimed that corporations should "end class struggle and bring about social cooperation." In fact, they were used to regulate economic and social relations in the interests of the fascist state.

Fascist ideology and the cult of the Duce were established in all spheres of social life. In education and culture, the tasks were set to educate young people in the fascist spirit. Mussolini, forgetting about his youthful atheism, entered into an agreement with the Vatican, which provided the fascist regime with support from the powerful Catholic Church. Pope Pius XI called him a man “sent to Italy by Providence.”

The Birth of Nazism in Germany

During these same years, the National Socialist movement arose in Germany. This happened in Bavaria. During the turbulent events of 1919, not only leftist forces became active here, proclaiming a Soviet republic. Right-wing radical organizations also appeared, including the German Workers' Party, which initially consisted of only a few people. In the fall of 1919, German army corporal A. Hitler came to it. He was sent to the party as an agent of military circles who sought to extend their influence to various political organizations, but soon decided to seriously connect his career with it.

Adolf Hitler was born in 1889 in the Austrian town of Braunau. Having failed his high school finals, he tried to become a student at the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna, but was unsuccessful. Finding himself without a profession or job, he did odd jobs. During the World War he volunteered for the German army. Germany's defeat left him bitter and angry at the "national traitors" and "socialist politicians" who, he believed, had led to Germany's collapse in November 1918.

The party was soon renamed the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), and Hitler became its chairman. He wanted to make the party mass. The party program of 1920 provided for measures against “wrong capitalism”: the withdrawal of unearned income and military profits, the transfer of large enterprises to the state, the expansion of pensions, the transfer of department stores for rent to small traders, the implementation of land reform and the prohibition of land speculation, etc.

In the struggle for political influence, the Nazis also used force. Since 1921, paramilitary units of the Nazi Party began to be created - “assault troops” (SA). Dressed in brown uniforms with the sign of a swastika (a cross with curved edges), the stormtroopers carried out raids on working-class neighborhoods, editorial offices of workers' newspapers, etc. During the period of intensification of the political struggle in Germany in the fall of 1923, Hitler, with the support of General E., famous since the World War. Ludendorff attempted a coup d'état. At a rally in one of the Munich beer halls, he declared the government overthrown and himself a dictator. The Beer Hall Putsch was suppressed and its organizers were sentenced to prison. In prison, Hitler wrote the book that later became famous, Mein Kampf (My Struggle). Despite the fact that his first attempt to break into power failed, he hoped to wait in the wings.

Concluding the consideration of the events of 1918 - early 1920s in European countries, one cannot help but note their complexity and inconsistency. The desire for freedom and justice was intertwined with the cruelty of revolution and counter-revolution. In an intense struggle, political movements and parties separated. The communist movement emerged from social democracy. During these same years, right-wing radical, fascist and Nazi forces made themselves known. Proclaiming the ideas of a “new order,” they rushed to power where revolutions had recently raged.

References:
Aleksashkina L.N. / General History. XX - early XXI centuries.

Fascism (from Italian fascio-bundle, bundle, association)? a right-wing radical political movement and ideological movement that denies both liberal and socialist values. It is one of the main types of totalitarianism, but is quite tolerant of private property. It is characterized by chauvinist nationalism, anti-Semitism, racism and aggressiveness in foreign policy.

“Classic” examples of fascism? these are Italian fascism and German Nazism. The main distinguishing quality of fascism? militant anti-communism, as well as social and nationalist demagoguery. For all the complexity of the class composition of the fascist movement, its anti-proletarian character is decisive. Fascism? a direct reaction of the entire anti-proletarian front to a possible socialist revolution in conditions of the collapse or crisis of the bourgeois state, a split in the ruling class, social hysteria in all layers of society. The establishment of fascism represents a radical revolution, leading to the complete and final destruction of bourgeois democracy by the bourgeoisie itself, since the social basis of its dictatorship has disintegrated.

With the establishment of fascism, there is no change in the class essence of state power, and the nature of the socio-economic system does not change. The most reactionary part of the bourgeoisie comes to power, which establishes a regime of arbitrariness and lawlessness. Being a product of the era of the general crisis of capitalism, fascism is openly terrorist dictatorship the most reactionary and chauvinistic elements of finance capital. What distinguishes fascism from other totalitarian regimes is, first of all, the preaching of “national socialism,” which also eliminates bourgeois democracy, but this is done without “theoretical justification” and not under “socialist” slogans. This is due to the fact that the fascists’ understanding of socialism was very specific. Mussolini saw it as a great act of destruction, and Hitler? full commitment to the ideas of the nation. The fascists emphasized what was popular in the 1920s and 30s. the ideas of socialism are mainly based mainly on demagogic considerations.

So, the basic principles of fascist ideology include the following fundamental provisions:

· Conservative revolution, the essence of which is the elimination of the liberal order, which led the country to a state of economic crisis and a proletarian-revolutionary situation. Conservative revolution? the path along which the country will return to its former historical greatness. Fascist revolutionaryism, special, based on the need for “order, discipline, obedience to the moral commandments of the Fatherland.”

· Totalitarian state. Mussolini declared that a party that rules in a totalitarian manner? “a new fact in history”, analogies and comparisons are inappropriate here. The state subjugates society, destroys its civil foundations, subjecting all aspects of its life to the state, including private (even intimate) relationships.

· The idea of ​​a nation. National revival is possible only within the framework of a totalitarian state in which national interests are decisive. The nation is “absolute”, a single whole. “The state educates citizens in civic virtues, it gives them a consciousness of its mission and encourages them to unity, harmonizes interests according to the principle of justice; ensures the continuity of the achievements of thought in the fields of knowledge, art, law, and solidarity; lifts people from elementary, primitive life to the heights of human power, that is, to an empire; preserves for future centuries the names of those who died for its inviolability and in the name of obedience to its laws; sets an example and exalts for future generations the leaders who increased his territory; geniuses who glorified him."

· The idea of ​​a “new order”. The establishment of an order of national prosperity and social justice requires the formation of a “new” person, devoted “with all his heart” to the state and nation.

· Denial of class antagonism. The fascists argued that this idea of ​​struggle and class rivalry was nothing more than an invention of liberals, “inflated” by Marxists. The idea of ​​classism in its essence contradicts the idea of ​​the unity of the German nation.

· Anti-parliamentarism and anti-multi-partyism. From the point of view of fascist ideology, parliamentarism leads to negative consequences for society, because The division of state power between groups of “rogues” who are trying to realize their private interests causes political instability. At the same time, the real interests of the nation are being grossly neglected. “There is not a single principle as deceitful as parliamentarism”? Hitler wrote. There can only be one party that merges with the nation into a single movement and monopolizes power, the rest must be banned and destroyed.

· Ban on trade unions. Trade unions express the interests exclusively of the working class, but workers are, first and foremost, citizens of their country. They are obliged to cooperate with fellow citizens who are not workers, and cannot allow speeches against their own compatriots.

· Anti-communism. The fight against communists took place both directly on the territory of fascist states (where communist parties were destroyed and banned), and had an international focus, primarily on the “homeland of communism” in the USSR. Did the Nazis partially define their intentions and goals for this country in a political, ideological and strategic document? "Drag Nach Osten". A. Hitler expressed his attitude and view of the communists as follows: “They literally trampled everything into the mud... The nation, since it was considered a product of the capitalist classes; The Fatherland, because it was considered a tool of the bourgeoisie to exploit the working class; rule of law? because for them it was a means of keeping the proletariat in line; religion, which was considered a means of stupefying the people for subsequent enslavement; morality? as a symbol of dull and slavish obedience" [cit. from: 9, p.284].

· Non-recognition of the Versailles system. According to the Versailles Peace Treaty, a ban on having an army, obligations to pay reparations, and the introduction of a demilitarized zone were introduced. The Nazis first neglected these requirements and then violated them. France and England allowed Germany to behave this way and did not resist, hoping to direct the growing aggression towards the USSR.

· Nationalism, racism, anti-Semitism. The fascists developed a radical degree of nationalism, the essence of which is that a nation “strong in spirit and will” is obliged to subjugate other nations and increase its own living space. Such concepts as “purity of blood”, “superior race” were introduced, on the basis of which plans were made for world domination and the transformation of some races into slaves: “these peoples have one and only justification for their existence - to be useful to us economically” [ cit. according to: 9, p.58], the rest were subject to extermination. Ideological anti-Semitism was expressed in practice by the mass genocide of Jews? The Holocaust, because Jews were recognized as “the source of capitalism, Marxism” and were accused of all their negative manifestations (unemployment, inflation, revolution): “If the Jews, with the help of their Marxist faith, conquer the peoples of the world, their crown will be a funeral wreath for humanity” [cit. from: 9, p.12] ? Hitler believed, and also pointed out the desire of the Jews to “denationalize, due to the degeneration” of representatives of the “superior race”. Thus, it is obvious that the principles of nationalism, racism and anti-Semitism have inseparably grown together and reincarnated into a completely new and ultra-radical concept.

· Expansionism. From the first days of power, the fascists and Nazis began to prepare for a “great war”, which was supposed to provide the German and Italian nations with dominance over the entire world. The build-up of military power occurred at a tremendous pace. Militarization filled all spheres of life. The idea of ​​war as a manifestation of the strength of a nation and its purpose is absolutely clearly visible in the speeches of both Hitler and Mussolini. "War? a sign of the vitality of a nation, the meaning of history" [cit. according to: 31, p.203] proclaimed by the Duce in his “Doctrine of Fascism”. And the Fuhrer wrote in Mein Kampf: “Whoever wants to live must fight; whoever does not want to fight in this world, where eternal struggle is the law of life, has no right to exist” [cit. from: 9, p.193].

· Communitarianism. The meaning of this idea is that the individual and society are completely inseparable, and the state is society; accordingly, there are no rights and interests of the individual outside the state. An individual can and should realize all interests only through communitarian, common things. To implement this approach, it is necessary to begin to educate a “new person”, whose interests will coincide with the interests of the nation and state. First of all, communitarianism addresses the economic sphere, where national goals in the economy must be shared by each individual, guided and subordinated to the party leader.

· Leaderism. Is fascism built on a charismatic principle? on leadership. The supremacy of the Fuhrer, the Duce, is “the embodiment of the racial national and popular spirit.” The leader has unlimited power. He is a symbol of the greatness and unity of the nation. Social groups rally around the leader, thanks to which he skillfully manipulates and leads them to mobilize the nation and solve pressing problems.

To summarize this chapter, it should be noted that fascist ideology has a number of specific features, which together make it possible to define it as follows: firstly, there is a clear distinction between the ideology of the ruling elite and the masses. The elitism of the top was justified, among other things, by biological arguments. Secondly, fascism is characterized by militant irrationalism and an extreme simplification of slogans and ideological clichés. Thirdly, it was built on a charismatic principle - on leadership. The Supreme Leader (Duce in Italy, Fuhrer in Germany), possessing unlimited power, is the embodiment of the racial, national and popular spirit. The fourth characteristic of this ideology is the cult of force, the absolutization of the force factor in history, the denial of humanism. Combined with racism, the cult of violence became one of the reasons for the outbreak of the bloodiest war in human history.