What is the universe? If it is, it's with umma of all existing. It all the time, space, matter and energy that have been formed and expanding are already 13.8 billion years. No one can say for sure how extensive the expanses of our world and there are no accurate predictions of the final.

Definition of the Universe

The word "universe" itself comes from Latin " universUm." For the first time, Cicero used him, and after him it became generally accepted among Roman authors. The concept indicated the world and space. At that time, people in these words saw the land, all famous living beings, the moon, the sun, the planets (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn) and the stars.

Sometimes instead of the "Universe" use " space", Which is translated from Greek as" peace. " In addition, among the terms appeared "Nature" and "All".

In modern concept, all that exist in the Universe is our system, the Milky Way and other structures. Also here includes all types of energy, space-time and physical laws.

One of the main issues that do not come out of the consciousness of a person has always been and is the question: " how did the universe appear?" Of course, there is no definite answer to this question, and it is unlikely to be obtained soon, but science works in this direction and forms a certain theoretical model of the origin of our universe.

Theories of origin of the Universe

Creationism: Everything created the Lord God

Among all the theories about the origin of the universe, this appeared very first. Very good and convenient version, which, perhaps, will always have relevance. By the way, many scientists of physicists, despite the fact that science and religion are often presented with the concepts of opposite, believed in God.

For example, Albert Einstein said:

"Every serious naturalist should be somehow a person religious. Otherwise, he is not able to imagine that those incredibly subtle interdependencies that he observes, not invented them. "

The Big Bang Theory (model of the hot universe)

Perhaps the most common and most recognized model of the origin of our universe. Responsible to the question - how chemical elements were formed and why the prevalence of them is exactly what is already observed.

According to this theory, about 14 billion back, there was no space and time, and the whole weight of the universe was concentrated in a tiny point with an incredible density - in singularity. Once because of the heterogeneity arose in it, the so-called big explosion occurred. And since then the universe is constantly expanding and cooled.

The theory of a large explosion

The first 10 -43 seconds after a large explosion called stage of quantum chaos. The nature of the universe at this stage of existence is not a description in the framework of physics known to us. There is a decay of a continuous single space-time on quanta.

After 10,000 years, the energy of the substance gradually exceeds the energy of the radiation and separation occurs. The substance begins to dominate the radiation, arises realistic background.

The theory of a large explosion harder fell on his feet after the opening of cosmological red shift and relic radiation. Two of these phenomena are the most significant arguments in favor of the correctness of the theory.

Also, the separation of the substance with radiation significantly increased the initial heterogeneity in the distribution of the substance, as a result of which they began to form galaxies and supergalaxie. The legitimate universe came to the same thing in which we are seeing them today.

Model expanding universe

Now it is known that it is known that Galaxies and other space objects are removed from each other, and therefore the universe expands.

The model of the expanding universe describes the fact of expansion itself. In general, it is not considered when and why the Universe began to expand. The majority of the models are based on the rapid theory of relativity and its geometric look at the nature of gravity.

Red shift - This is observed for distant sources a decrease in radiation frequency, which is explained by the removal of sources (galaxies, quasars) from each other. This fact suggests that the Universe is expanding.

Relic radiation - It's like a large explosion echo. Previously, the universe was a hot plasma, which gradually cooled. Since those distant times, the so-called wandering photons remained in the universe, which form background cosmic radiation. Previously, at higher temperatures of the Universe, this radiation was much more powerful. Now its spectrum corresponds to the absolutely solid emission spectrum with a temperature of only 2.7 Kelvin.

The theory of the evolution of large-scale structures

As the data on the relict background shows, at the time of separation of radiation from the substance The universe was actually homogeneous, Fluctuations of the substance were extremely small, and this represents a significant problem.

The second problem is the cellular structure of ultra-discharge galaxies and at the same time sphere - at the clusters of smaller sizes. Any theory that is trying to explain the origin of the large-scale structure of the universe, must solve these two problems in obligatory.

The current theory of the formation of a large-scale structure, as well as individual galaxies, is called " hierarchical theory.».

The essence - at the beginning of the galaxies were small in size (approximately as Magellanov cloudbut), but over time they merge, forming all the big galaxies.

Recently, the faithfulness of the theory is questioned.

String theory

This hypothesis to some extent refutes a large explosion as the initial moment of the occurrence of open space elements.

According to the theory of strings, The universe always existed. The hypothesis describes the interaction and structure of matter, where there is a certain set of particles that are divided into quarks, bosons and leptons. In simple language, these elements are the basis of the universe, since their size is so small that division on other components has become impossible.

A distinctive feature of the theory about how the universe was formed, the statement about the aforementioned particles, which represent ultramicroscopic strings, which constantly fluctuate. Selfish they do not have a material form, being the energy that in the aggregate creates all the physical elements of the space.

An example in this situation will be a fire: looking at him, he seems to be a matter, but he is not squealing.

Chaotic inflation theory - Andrei Linde theory

According to this theory there are some scalar fieldwhich is heterogeneous in all its volume. That is, in various areas of the universe, the scalar field has a different meaning. Then in the areas where the field is weak - nothing happens, while areas with a strong field begin to expand (inflation) due to its energy, while forming new universes.

Such a scenario implies The existence of a set of worldsarising undisputed and having a set of elementary particles, and, consequently, the laws of nature.

Lee Smolina theory

This theory is well known and suggests that a large explosion is not the beginning of the existence of the Universe, but is only a phase transition between its two states. Since the universe has existed to a large explosion in the form of cosmological singularity, close by its nature to the singularity of the black hole, Smolin suggests that The universe could arise from a black hole.

Evolution of the Universe

How did the development process and the evolution of the universe occurred? Over the next billion years, gravity forced more dense areas to attract. In this process, gas clouds, stars, galactic structures and other celestial objects were formed.

This period is called Structural eraSince it was in this time period that the modern universe was born. The visible substance was distributed to various formations (stars in the galaxies, and those in clusters and super-consumption).

What was before the emergence of the universe

It is difficult to submit a time for 13.7 billion years to today, when the whole universe was a singularity. According to big Explosion Theory One of the main applicants for the role of explaining how the universe and all matter in space came from - everything was compressed into a point, less than the subatomic particle. But if you can still take, think about what: what was before the big explosion happened?

This question of modern cosmology is rooted in the fourth century of our era. 1600 years ago theologian Augustine blissful as one of the best physico in 20th century Albert Einstein They tried to understand the nature before the creation of the universe. They came to the conclusion that It was not no "before."

Currently, a person is put forward various theories.

The theory of multual axes

What if our universe is a descendant of another older universe? Some astrophysicists believe that shed light on this story will help the relic radiation remaining from the Big Bang.

According to this theory, in the first moments of its existence, the universe began to expand extremely quickly. The theory also explains the temperature and density of the fluctuations of relict radiation and suggests that these fluctuations should be the same.

But, as it turned out, no. Recent studies made it clear that the universe is actually one-bed, and in some areas of fluctuations more than in others. Some cosmologists believe that this observation confirms that our universe was "Mother" (!)

In the theory of chaotic inflation, this idea acquires a scope: the inflexible progress of inflation bubbles generates the abundance of the universes, and each of them generates even more inflationary bubbles in a huge amount Multiveselenic.

Theory of white and black holes

Nevertheless, there are models that are trying to explain the formation of singularity to a large explosion. If you think about black holes As about gigantic garbagers, they are the main candidates of the initial compression, so our expanding universe may well be white hole - The opening of the black hole, and each black hole in our universe can accommodate a separate universe.

Large jump

Other scientists believe that the formation of singularity is a cycle called " large jump"As a result of which the expanding universe ultimately collaps itself, generating another singularity, which, again, generates another big explosion.

This process will be eternal, and all singularities and all collapses will not be anything else, except for the transition to another phase of the existence of the universe.

The theory of cyclic universe

The last explanation that we will consider uses the idea of \u200b\u200bthe cyclic universe generated by the theory of strings. It suggests that new matterium and energy flows appear every trillion years, when two membranes or painns lying outside of our measurements are faced with each other.

What was to a big explosion? The question remains open. Maybe nothing. Maybe another universe or other version of our. Maybe the ocean of the universes, each of which is a set of laws and constants that dictate the nature of physical reality.

Problems of modern birth models and evolution of the universe

Many theories relating to the Universe recently face problems as a theoretical and, more importantly, a supervisory nature:

1. The question of the form of the universe It is an important open issue of cosmology. Speaking by mathematical language, we have the problem of searching for a three-dimensional spatial section of the universe, that is, such a figure that best represents the spatial aspect of the universe.
2. Unknown is the universe globally spatially flatthat is, whether laws are applicable Euclidean geometryon the biggest scale.
3. It is also unknown whether the universe is single connected or multisogenic. According to the standard extension model, the universe has no spatial boundaries, but may be spatially finite.
4. There are assumptions that The universe was originally born rotating. A classical idea of \u200b\u200bthe birth is the idea of \u200b\u200bthe isotropy of a large explosion, that is, the spread of energy is equally in all directions. However, it appeared and received some confirmation competing hypothesis on the presence of the initial moment of rotation of the universe.

One of the main issues that do not come out of the consciousness of a person has always been and is the question: "How did the universe appear?". Of course, there is no definite answer to this question, and it is unlikely to be obtained soon, but science works in this direction and forms a certain theoretical model of the origin of our universe. First of all, it should be considered the main properties of the universe, which should be described within the framework of the cosmological model:

• The model must take into account the observed distances between objects, as well as the speed and direction of their movement. Such calculations are based on the law of Hubble: cZ \u003d.H 0.D.where z. - the red offset of the object, D. - distances to this object, c. - The speed of light.
• The age of the universe in the model should exceed the age of the oldest objects in the world.
• The model must take into account the initial abundance of elements.
• The model must take into account the observed.
• The model must take into account the observed relic background.

Consider a briefly generally accepted theory of the emergence and early evolution of the universe, which is supported by the majority of scientists. Today, under the theory of a large explosion, a combination of the model of the hot universe with a large explosion is implied. And although these concepts first existed independently of each other, as a result of their association managed to explain the initial chemical composition of the universe, as well as the presence of relic radiation.

According to this theory, the universe arose about 13.77 billion years ago from a certain dense preheated object -, poorly described in the framework of modern physics. The problem of cosmological singularity, among other things, is that with its description, most of the physical quantities, such as density and temperature, tend to infinity. At the same time, it is known that with infinite density (measure of chaos), it should rush to zero, which is not combined with infinite temperatures.

• • The first 10 -43 seconds after a large explosion are called the stage of quantum chaos. The nature of the universe at this stage of existence is not a description in the framework of physics known to us. There is a decay of a continuous single space-time on quanta.

• Plank Moment - the end of the end of the quantum chaos, which falls on 10 -43 second. At this point, the parameters of the universe were equal, such as the plank temperature (about 10 32 K). At the time of the plank era, all four fundamental interactions (weak, strong, electromagnetic and gravitational) were combined into some kind of interaction. Consider the Plank Moment as a long period - it is not possible, since with parameters less than the Plankovsky, modern physics does not work.
• Stage. The next stage of the history of the Universe has become an inflationary stage. At the first moment of inflation from a single supersymmetric field (previously including fundamental interactions), gravitational interaction separated. During this period, the substance has a negative pressure, which causes the exponential growth of the kinetic energy of the universe. Simply put, in this period, the universe began to swollen very quickly, and the end of the energity of physical fields turns into the energy of conventional particles. At the end of this stage, the temperature of the substance and radiation is significantly increased. Along with the end of the stage of inflation, strong interaction is also allocated. Also at this moment occurs.
• Stage of radiation domination. The next stage of the development of the universe, which includes several stages. At this stage, the temperature of the universe begins to decrease, quarks are formed, then the hadron and leptons. In the nucleosynthesis era, the formation of initial chemical elements is the formation, helium is synthesized. However, radiation still prevails above the substance.
• The era of dominance of the substance. After 10,000 years, the energy of the substance gradually exceeds the energy of the radiation and separation occurs. The substance begins to dominate the radiation, the relic background occurs. Also, the separation of the substance with radiation significantly increased the initial heterogeneity in the distribution of the substance, as a result of which the galaxies and supergoing began to form. The legitimate universe came to the same thing in which we are seeing them today.

The above-described picture is composed of several fundamental theories and gives common idea of \u200b\u200bthe formation of the universe in the early stages of its existence.

Where did the universe come from?

If the Universe originated from cosmological singularity, then where did the singularity come from? This question give an accurate answer until it is impossible. Consider some cosmological models affecting the "birth of the Universe".

Cyclic models

These models are built on approval that the universe always existed and over time only its state changes, moving from expansion to compression - and back.

• Stainhardt-Turko model. This model is built on string theory (M-theory), as it uses such an object as "brane". According to this model, the visible universe is located inside a 3-marriage, which periodically, once a few trillion years, is facing another 3-severe, which causes the similarity of a large explosion. Further, our 3-Brane begins to move away from the other and expand. At some point, the share of dark energy gets the championship and the rate of expansion 3-sheds grows. The colossal expansion dispels the substance and radiation so much that the world becomes almost homogeneous and empty. In the end, a repeated 3-bran collision occurs, as a result of which our returns to the initial phase of their cycle, again nourishing our "universe".

• Loris Bauma and Frempton Paul Frempton also read about the cyclicality of the Universe. According to their theory, the latter after a large explosion will expand due to the dark energy until it approaches the time of space-time itself - a large gap. As is known, in the "closed entropy system does not decrease" (the second beginning of thermodynamics). From this assertion it follows that the Universe cannot return to the initial state, since the entropy should decrease during such a process. However, this problem is solved by the framework of this theory. According to the theory of Baum and Frempton for a moment to a large gap, the universe decays into many "flap", each of which has a rather small value of entropy. Testing a number of phase transitions, the data "flap" of the former Universe give rise to matter and develop similarly to the initial universe. These new worlds do not interact with each other, as they scatter with speed more speed of light. Thus, scientists have escaped the cosmological singularity with which the birth of the Universe begins according to the majority of cosmological theories. That is, at the time of the end of his cycle, the universe decays into many other non-consistent worlds that will become new universes.
• Conformal cyclic cosmology - the cyclic model of Roger Penrose and Vaagna Gurzadyan. According to this model, the Universe is capable of switching to a new cycle, without disturbing the second beginning of thermodynamics. This theory relies on the assumption that black holes destroy the absorbed information that a certain way "legally" lowers the entropy of the universe. Then each such cycle of the existence of the Universe begins with the similarity of a large explosion and ends with singularity.

Other models of the emergence of the Universe

Among other hypotheses explaining the appearance of the visible universe are the most popular two:

• Chaotic theory of inflation - the theory of Andrei Linde. According to this theory, there is some scalar field that is inhomogeneously in all its volume. That is, in various areas of the universe, the scalar field has a different meaning. Then in the areas where the field is weak - nothing happens, while areas with a strong field begin to expand (inflation) due to its energy, while forming new universes. Such a scenario implies the existence of a set of worlds that have arisen undesigned and having their own set of elementary particles, and, consequently, the laws of nature.
• Lee Smolina Theory - assumes that the big explosion is not the beginning of the existence of the universe, but only a phase transition between its two states. Since the universe has existed to a large explosion in the form of cosmological singularity, close by nature to the singularity of the black hole, Smolin suggests that the universe could arise from a black hole.

RESULTS

Despite the fact that cyclic and other models respond to a number of questions, the answers to which cannot give the theory of a large explosion, including the problem of cosmological singularity. Yet, complete with the inflationary theory, the big explosion morely explains the emergence of the universe, and also converges with a variety of observations.

Today, researchers continue to intensively study the possible scenarios of the emergence of the Universe, however, to give an irrefutable answer to the question "How did the Universe appear?" - It is unlikely to succeed in the near future. There are two reasons for this: direct evidence of cosmological theories is almost impossible, only indirect; It is even theoretically there is no possibility to obtain accurate information about the world until the moment of the Big Bang. For these two reasons, scientists remain only to put forward hypothesis and build cosmological models that will most correctly describe the nature of the universe we observed.

Microscopic particles that human vision can only be seen with the help of a microscope, as well as huge planets and clusters of stars affect the imagination of people. Since ancient times, our ancestors have tried to comprehend the principles of the formation of space, but even in the modern world of an accurate answer to the question "How the Universe" was formed "still does not exist. Perhaps the human mind is not given to find a solution to such a global task?

This secret was trying to comprehend scientists from different eras from all over the Earth. The basis of all theoretical explanations are assumptions and calculations. Numerous hypotheses put forward by scientists are designed to create an idea of \u200b\u200bthe universe and explain the emergence of its large-scale structure, chemical elements and describe the chronology of origin.

String theory

Some extent refutes the big explosion as the initial moment of the occurrence of elements of open space. According to the universe, always existed. The hypothesis describes the interaction and structure of matter, where there is a certain set of particles that are divided into quarks, bosons and leptons. In simple language, these elements are the basis of the universe, since their size is so small that division on other components has become impossible.

A distinctive feature of the theory about how the universe was formed, the statement about the aforementioned particles, which represent ultramicroscopic strings, which constantly fluctuate. Selfish they do not have a material form, being the energy that in the aggregate creates all the physical elements of the space. An example in this situation will be a fire: looking at him, he seems to be a matter, but he is not squealing.

Big explosion - the first scientific hypothesis

The author of this assumption was an astronomer Edwin Habll, who in 1929 noticed that the galaxies were gradually moving away from each other. The theory argues that the current large universe originated from a particle that had microscopic size. Future elements of the universe were in a singular state at which it is impossible to obtain data on pressure, temperature or density. The laws of physics in such conditions do not affect energy and matter.

The cause of a large explosion is called instability that originated inside the particle. Peculous fragments, spreading in space, formed nebula. After some time, these smallest elements formed atoms, of which galaxies, stars and planets were arising with such as we know them today.

Space inflation

This theory of the birth of the Universe argues that the modern world was initially placed in an infinitely small point in a state of singularity, which began to expand with incredible speed. After a very short time, its increase has already exceeded the speed of light. This process was called "Inflation".

The main task of the hypothesis is an explanation of the not how the universe was formed, but the reasons for its expansion and the concept of cosmic singularity. As a result of work on this theory, it became clear that only calculations and results based on theoretical methods apply to solve this problem.

Creationism

This theory dominated for a long time until the end of the XIX century. According to creationism, the organic world, humanity, the earth and the large universe were generally created by God. The hypothesis originated among scientists who did not refute Christianity as an explanation of the history of the universe.

Creationism is the main opponent of evolution. All nature created by God for six days, which we see daily, was originally such and remains unchanged so far. That is, self-development as such did not exist.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the accumulation of knowledge in the field of physics, astronomy, mathematics and biology begins. With the help of new information, scientists make multiple attempts to explain how the universe was formed, thereby pushing creativity to the background. In the modern world, this theory acquired the form of a philosophical flow consisting of religion as a basis, as well as myths, facts and even scientific knowledge.

Antropic principle of Stephen Hawking

His hypothesis as a whole can be described by several words: random events does not happen. Our land today has more than 40 characteristics, without which life on the planet would not exist.

American astrophysicist H. Ross was assessing the probability of random events. As a result, the scientist received a number 10 with a degree -53 (if the last digit is less than 40, the accident is considered impossible).

The observed universe contains a trillion galaxies and in each of them is approximately 100 billion stars. Based on this, the number of planets in the universe is 10 in the twentieth degree, and this is 33 orders of magnitude less than in the previous calculation. Consequently, in all space there are no such unique places with conditions as on Earth, which would allow spontaneous occurrence of life.

How did she enter the endless space for the first glance? And what does she have many millions and billions of years? These questions tormented (and continue to torment) the minds of philosophers and scientists, it seems, since the beginning of time, breeding many interesting and sometimes insane theories

Today, most astronomers and cosmologists have come to a common agreement on the fact that the Universe we know appeared as a result of a giant explosion, which was not only the main part of the matter, but an appeared source of basic physical laws, according to which there is that space that surrounds us. All this is called the theory of the Big Bang.

The foundations of the theory of a large explosion are relatively simple. Thus, if briefly, according to it, the whole matter and existing now in the Matter's Universe appeared at the same time - about 13, 8 billion years ago. At that time, all matter existed in the form of a very compact abstract ball (or point) with endless density and temperature. This condition was called singularity. Suddenly, the singularity began to expand and gave rise to the universe we know.

It is worth noting that the theory of large explosion is only one of the many proposed hypotheses of the emergence of the Universe (for example, there is still the theory of the stationary universe), but it has gained the widespread recognition and popularity. It not only explains the source of the entire famous matter, the laws of physics and the large structure of the universe, it also describes the reasons for expanding the universe and many other aspects and phenomena.

The chronology of events in the theory of the Big Bang.

Based on the knowledge of the current state of the universe, scientists suggest that everything should have started from a single point with endless density and end time, which began to expand. After the initial expansion, as the theory, the universe passed the cooling phase, which allowed subatomic particles to appear and later with simple atoms. Giant clouds of these ancient elements later, thanks to gravity, began to form stars and galaxies.

All this, according to scientists guessing, it began about 13, 8 billion years ago, and therefore this starting point is considered to be the age of the universe. By studying various theoretical principles, conducting experiments with the involvement of particle accelerators and high-energy states, as well as by conducting astronomical studies of the distant corners of the Universe, scientists brought and offered a chronology of events that began with a large explosion and led the Universe in the end of the state of cosmic evolution, which It takes place now.

Scientists believe that the earliest periods of the emergence of the Universe - launched from 10-43 to 10-11 seconds after a large explosion, are still the subject of disputes and discussions. Attention! Only if you consider that the laws of physics that we are now known are not to exist at this time, it is very difficult to understand how processes in this early universe were regulated. In addition, experiments using those possible types of energies that could be present at that time have not yet been carried out. Whatever it was, many theories about the emergence of the Universe ultimately agree that in some period of time there was a starting point with which it all began.

The era of singularity.

Also known as the Platform Epoch (or Planck Era) is adopted for the earliest of the known periods of the evolution of the Universe. At this time, all matter was kept in the singular point of infinite density and temperature. During this period, scientists consider the quantum effects of gravitational interaction dominated the physical, and none of the physical forces were equal to gravity.

The Planck Era has presumably lasted from 0 to 10-43 seconds and it is named so because it is possible to measure its duration only by Platform time. Due to the extreme temperatures and the infinite density of matter, the state of the universe during this period of time was extremely unstable. After that, there were periods of expansion and cooling, which led to the emergence of fundamental forces of physics.

Approximately from 10-43 to 10-36 seconds in the universe there was a process of colliding of transitional temperatures. It is believed that at this moment the fundamental forces that manage the current universe began to be separated from each other. The first step of this separation was the emergence of gravitational forces, strong and weak nuclear interactions and electromagnetism.

In the period from about 10-36 to 10-32 seconds after a large explosion, the temperature of the universe became sufficiently low (1028 K), which led to the separation of electromagnetic forces (strong interaction) and weak nuclear interaction (weak interaction.

Epoch inflation.

With the advent of the first fundamental forces in the Universe, the era of inflation began, which lasts from 10-32 seconds on the Planck time to an unknown point in time. Most cosmological models suggest that the universe during this period was evenly filled with high density energy, and incredibly high temperatures and pressure led to its rapid expansion and cooling.

It began on 10-37 seconds, when behind the transition phase that caused the separation of forces was followed by expanding the universe in geometric progression. In the same period, the universe was in a state of baryogenesis, when the temperature was so high that the disorderly movement of particles in the space occurred with a challenge speed.

At this time, the couples from particles - anti-particles are destroyed and immediately collapsed, which is considered led to the dominance of matter over antimatter in the modern universe. After the termination of inflation, the universe consisted of a quark - gluon plasma and other elementary particles. From this point on, the universe began to cool, the matter began to form and connect.

The era of cooling.

With a decrease in density and temperature inside the universe, a decrease in energy in each particle began to occur. This transitional state lasted until the fundamental forces and elementary particles came to their current form. Since the particle energy dropped to the values \u200b\u200bthat can be achieved today within the framework of experiments, the actual possible presence of this time period causes scientists much less disputes.

For example, scientists believe that for 10-11 seconds after a large explosion, the particle's energy decreased significantly. Approximately 10-6 seconds of quarks and gluons began to form baryons - protons and neutrons. Quarks began to prevail over antiquarks, which in turn led to the predominance of barione over antibarions.

Since the temperature was already not high to create new proton-antiprotonic pairs (or neutron-antineuter pairs), the massive destruction of these particles was followed, which led to the residue only 1/1010 the amount of initial protons and neutrons and the complete disappearance of their anti-particles. A similar process occurred about 1 second after a large explosion. Only "victims" made electrons and positrons this time. After the mass destruction, the remaining protons, neutrons and electrons stopped their disorderly movement, and the energy density of the universe was filled with photons and to a lesser extent neutrino.

During the first minutes of the expansion of the universe, the period of nucleosynthesis began (synthesis of chemical elements. Due to the temperature drop to 1 billion Kelvinov and reducing the energy density to about 1 billion, equivalent air density, neutrons and protons began to be mixed and forming the first stable hydrogen isotope (deuterium), as well as Helium atoms. Nevertheless, most protons in the universe remained as incoherent nuclei of hydrogen atoms.

After about 379,000 years, the electrons merged with these hydrogen nuclei and formed atoms (again predominantly hydrogen), while radiation separated from matter and continued to expand almost freely through the space. This radiation is called relict radiation, and it is the most ancient source of light in the universe.

With the expansion, the relict radiation gradually lost its density and energy and at the moment its temperature is 2, 7260 0, 0013 K (- 270, 424 C), and the energy density 0, 25 eV (or 4, 005x10-14 j / m? ; 400-500 photons / cm. Real defects extends in all directions and at a distance of about 13, 8 billion light years, but the assessment of its actual distribution speaks about 46 billion light years from the center of the Universe.

The era of the structure (hierarchical era).

In the next few billion years, more dense regions are almost evenly distributed in the universe matter began to attract each other. As a result, they became even more densely, began to form gas, stars, galaxies clouds, and other astronomical structures, which we can at present. This period the name of the hierarchical era is wearing. At this time, the Universe, which we see now, began to acquire your form. Matter began to unite in the structures of various sizes - stars, planets, galaxies, galactic clusters, as well as galactic supercountations separated by intergalactic jumpers containing only a few galaxies.

The details of this process can be described according to the submission of the number and type of matter distributed in the universe, which is represented in the form of cold, warm, hot dark matter and baryon substance. However, the modern standard cosmological model of a large explosion is the Lambda - CDM model, according to which the particles of dark matter move slowly more than the speed of light. It was chosen because it solves all the contradictions that appeared in other cosmological models.

According to this model, the cold dark matter accounts for about 23 percent of all matter / energy in the universe. The proportion of the baryon substance is about 4, 6 percent. Lambda - CDM refers to the so-called cosmological constant: the theory proposed by Albert Einstein, which characterizes the vacuum properties and shows the balance ratio between mass and energy as a constant static value. In this case, it is associated with dark energy, which serves as an accelerator of the expansion of the Universe and maintains gigantic cosmological structures largely homogeneous.

Long-term forecasts regarding the future universe.

The hypotheses regarding the fact that the evolution of the universe has a starting point, naturally summarize scientists to questions about the possible end point of this process. Only if the universe began its history from a small point with an endless density, which suddenly began to expand, does it mean that it will expand it too infinitely or once it will end with an expansive force and the reverse compression process will begin, the final result of which will be the same infinitely dense point?

The answers to these questions were the main goal of cosmologists from the very beginning of disputes about what kind of cosmological model of the Universe is true. With the adoption of the theory of a large explosion, but for the most part due to the observation of dark energy in the 1990s, scientists agreed on the two most likely scenarios of the evolution of the universe.

According to the first to be called "large compression", the universe will reach its maximum size and starts to collapse. This version of the development of events will be possible if only the density of the mass of the universe will become greater than the critical density itself. In other words, if the density of matter reaches a certain value or becomes above this value (1-3x10-26 kg of matter on M), the universe will begin to shrink.

An alternative is another scenario, which states that if the density in the universe is equal to or below the value of the critical density, then its expansion will slow down, but will never stop completely. According to this hypothesis, the name "Thermal Death of the Universe", the expansion will continue until the star formation cease to consume interstellar gas inside each of the surrounding galaxies. That is, the transfer of energy and matter from one object to another will completely stop. All existing stars in this case burned down and turn into white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes.

Gradually, black holes will face other black holes that hello to education are more and larger. The average temperature of the universe approaches the absolute zero. Black holes in the end "evaporate", having released their latest radiation of hoking. In the end, thermodynamic entropy in the Maximum Universe will become. Thermal death will come.

Modern observations, which take into account the presence of dark energy and its influence on the expansion of space, pushed scientists to the conclusion, according to which, over time, more and more the space of the Universe will pass outside of our horizon of events and will become invisible to us. The final and logical result of this scientist is not yet known, but the "thermal death" may well be the end point of such events.

There are other hypotheses regarding the distribution of dark energy, or rather, its possible species (for example, phantom energy. According to them, galactic clusters, stars, planets, atoms, atoms and matter, and matter itself will be torn apart as a result of its infinite expansion. Such a scenario Evolution is called "big gap". The cause of the death of the universe according to this scenario is the extension itself.

The history of the theory of a large explosion.

The earliest mention of a large explosion refers to the beginning of the 20th century and is associated with observations of space. In 1912, American astronomer Vesto Slofer conducted a series of observations of spiral galaxies (which were originally renowned with nebulae) and measured their Doppler red bias. Almost in all cases of observation showed that spiral galaxies are distinguished from our Milky Way.

In 1922, an outstanding Russian mathematician and cosmologist Alexander Friedman derived from Einstein equations for the general theory of relativity so-called Friedman equations. Despite the promotion of Einstein theory in favor of the presence of a cosmological constant, the work of Friedman showed that the universe is rather in the expansion state.

In 1924, the measurements of Edwin Hubble distances to the nearest spiral nebula showed that these systems are actually really other galaxies. At the same time, Hubble started developing a number of indicators for deducting distance, using 2, 5-meter Hooker telescope in the Mount Wilson Observatory. By 1929, Hubble discovered the relationship between the distance and the speed of removal of galaxies, which later became the law of Hubble.

In 1927, Belgian mathematician, the physicist and the Catholic priest Georges Lemeter, independently came to the same results as the Friedman equations showed, and the first formulated the relationship between the distance and the speed of the galaxies, proposing the first assessment of the coefficient of this dependence. Lemeter believed that in a period of time, in the past, the entire mass of the universe was concentrated at one point (atom.

These discoveries and assumptions caused a lot of disputes between physicists in the 20s and 30s, most of which believed that the Universe was in a stationary state. According to the model established at the time, the new matter is created along with the infinite expansion of the Universe, evenly and is equivalent to the density distributed throughout its length. Among scientists who support it, the idea of \u200b\u200ba large explosion seemed more theological, rather than scientific. The Lemeter's address was the criticism of bias on the basis of religious prejudices.

It should be noted that at the same time other theories existed. For example, the model of the Milna Universe and the cyclic model. Both were based on the postulates of the general theory of the relativity of Einstein and subsequently received the support of the scientist himself. According to these models, the Universe exists in an infinite stream of repeated cycles of expansion and collapse.

1. The Epoch of Singularity (Plakovskaya). It is considered primary, as an early evolutionary period of the universe. Matter has been concentrated at one point having its temperature and infinite density. Scientists argue that this era is characteristic of the dominance of quantum effects belonging to gravitational interaction on physical, with no physical force from all those who existed in those distant times in their own strength was identical to gravity, that is, was not equal to it. The duration of the planacian era focuses in the range from 0 to 10-43 seconds. She received such a name due to the fact that only the planac time could fully measure its length. This time interval is considered very unstable, which in turn is crashed closely with extreme temperature and unlimited density of matter. Following the epoch of singularity there was a period of expansion, and with it and cooling, which led to the formation of the main physical forces.

How the universe was born. Cold Birth

What was before the universe. Model "Sleeping" Universe

"It is possible, to a large explosion, the universe was a very compact, slowly evolving static space," theoretizes physics such as Kurt Hinterbichler, Austin Joyce and Justin Huri.

This "biased" universe was supposed to have a metastable state, that is, to be stable until an even more stable state appears. By analogy, imagine a break, on the edge of which the vibration is the vibration. Any touch to Boulder will lead to the fact that it will fall into the abyss or - that closer to our case - there will be a big explosion. According to some theories, the "biased" universe could exist in another form, for example, in the form of a flexible and very dense space. As a result, this metastable period approached the end: she sharply expanded and acquired the form and the state of what we see now.

"In the" Sleeping "Universe model, however, there are also their problems," says Carroll.

"She also assumes the presence of the universe of the low level of entropy and does not explain why this is so."

However, Hinterbichler, a physicist theoretical from the University of Case Western Reserve, does not consider the emergence of low entropy to the problem.

"We are simply looking for an explanation of the dynamics that took place to a large explosion, which explains why we see what we see now. While it is only the only thing that remains for us, "says Hinterbichler.

Carroll, however, believes that there is another theory of the "biased" universe, which is able to explain the low level of entropy existing in our universe.

How the universe appeared from nothing. How the universe works

Let's talk about how physics is actually arranged, according to our concepts. Since the days of Newton, the paradigm of fundamental physics did not change; It includes three parts. The first is "state space": in fact, a list of all possible configurations in which the universe can be. The second is a certain state representing the universe at some point in time, usually in the current one. The third is a kind of rule to which the Universe is developing in time. Give me the universe for today, and the laws of physics will say that it will become with her in the future. Such a method of thinking is no less faithful for quantum mechanics or from or quantum field theory than for Newton mechanics or Maxwell electrodynamics.

Quantum mechanics, in particular, special, but very multilateral implementation of this scheme. (Quantum field theory is a certain example of quantum mechanics, and not a new way of thinking). States are "wave functions", and the set of all possible wave functions of a particular system is called "Hilbert space". Its advantage is that it strongly limits the set of features (because it is a vector space: remark for experts). As soon as you inform me of its size (number of measurements), you completely define your Hilbert space. This is fundamentally different from classical mechanics, in which the space of states can become extremely difficult. And there is also a machine - "Hamiltonian" - indicating exactly how to develop from one state to another over time. I repeat that the varieties of Hamiltonians are not much; It is enough to record a specific list of quantities (eigen energy values \u200b\u200b- refinement for you, annoying experts).

How life appeared on earth. Life in the Earth

Life using chemistry other than ours may arise on Earth more than once. Maybe. And if we find evidence of the presence of such a process, it means that there is a high probability that life will arise in many places of the Universe independently of each other, as well as life arose on Earth. But on the other hand, imagine that we will feel if in the end you will find life on another planet, possibly rotating around the distant star, and it turns out that it has identical chemistry and, perhaps, even identical to our DNA structure.

The chances of the fact that life on Earth arose absolutely spontaneously and accidentally seem very small ones. The chances of occurring exactly the same life elsewhere are incredibly small, and almost equal to zero. But these questions have possible answers that English astronomers Fred Hoil and Chandra Vikramasingha outlined in their unusual book written in 1979 - "Life Cloud".

Given the extremely unlikely chance that life on Earth appeared in itself, the authors offer another explanation. It lies in the fact that the appearance of life occurred somewhere in space, and then spread throughout the universe by means of Panxermia. Microscopic life stuck in the garbage, which occurred as a result of cosmic clashes, can travel, being inactive for a very long time. After that, when she arrives at the destination, where it will begin to develop. Thus, the whole life in the universe, including life on earth, is actually the same life.

Video How the Universe appeared

How the universe appeared from nothing. Cold Birth

However, the paths to such an association can be considered at a qualitative level, and here there are very interesting prospects. One of them considered the famous cosmologist, Professor of Arizona University of Lawrence Krauss in his recently published book "A Universe from Nothing" ("Universe from Nothing"). His hypothesis looks fantastic, but does not contradict the established laws of physics.

It is believed that our universe originated from a very hot initial state with a temperature of about 1032 Kelvin. However, it is possible to imagine the cold birth of the universes of pure vacuum - more precisely, from its quantum fluctuations. It is well known that such fluctuations give rise to a great set of virtual particles, literally arising from non-existence and subsequently disappeared. According to Krauss, vacuum fluctuations are in principle to give the beginning of the same ephemeral distinguished, which under certain conditions are transmitted from the virtual state to the real.

The question of how the universe appeared, always worried people. This is not surprising, because everyone wants to know my origins. Over this issue, scientists, priests and writers are already fighting for several millennia. This question excites the mind not only by specialists, but also every simple person. However, it is immediately worth saying that one hundred percent answer to the question of how the universe appeared is not. There is only the theory that most scientists support.

• Here we will analyze it.

Since everything that surrounds a person has its own principle, it does not surprise the fact that since ancient times a man tried to find the beginning of the universe. A person of the Middle Ages, the answer to this question was quite simple - the universe created God. However, with the development of science, scientists began to question not only the question of God, but in general that the universe has the beginning.

In 1929, thanks to American Astronoma Hubble, scientists returned to the question of the roots of the universe. The fact is that Hubble proved that the galaxies, of which the universe consists, are constantly moving. In addition to movement, they can also increase, and therefore the universe increases. And if it grows, it turns out that there was once a start stage of this growth. And this means that the universe has a beginning.

A little later, the British astronomer Hoyle pushed the sensational hypothesis: the universe appeared at the time of the Big Bang. His theory and entered the story under the name. The essence of the idea of \u200b\u200bHoyle is simple and complex at the same time. He believed that once there was a stage, which is called the state of cosmic singularity, that is, the time stood on the zero mark, and the density and temperature were infinity. And at one moment the explosion happened, as a result of which the singularity was disturbed, and therefore the density and temperature changed, the growth of matter began, and therefore the time began its report. Later, Hoil himself called his theory of little happy, but this did not prevent it from becoming the most popular hypothesis of the origin of the universe.

When did what Hoyle called the big explosion? Scientists have conducted many calculations, as a result, the majority agreed on a figure of 13.5 billion years. It was then that of nothing began to appear in just a second of a second, the universe acquired the size less atom, and the growth process was launched. The key role was played by gravity. The most interesting thing is that if it were a little stronger, then nothing would have arisen, the maximum black hole. And if the gravity was a little weaker, then nothing would have arisen at all.
After a few seconds, after the explosion, the temperature in the universe decreased slightly, which gave the impetus to the creation of a substance and antimatter. As a result, atoms began to appear. So the universe ceased to be monophonic. Somewhere atoms were more, somewhere less. In some parts it was hot, at other temperatures were lower. Atoms began to face each other, forming connections, then new substances, and later the body. Some objects have a large internal energy. These were stars. They began to assemble around themselves (thanks to the strength of attraction) other bodies that we call the planets. So there were systems, one of which is our sunny.

Big explosion. Problems of the model and their permission

1. The problem of large-scale and isotropy of the universe can be resolved due to the fact that at the inflation stage, the expansion occurred in an unusually high rate. It follows from this that the entire space of the observed universe is the result of one causal-related field of the epoch preceding inflationary.
2. Permission of the problem of the flat universe. This is possible because at the inflation stage there is an increase in the radius of the curvature of space. This value is as follows, which allows modern density parameters to have a value close to critical.
3. Inflationary expansion leads to the appearance of density oscillations with a certain amplitude and the form of the spectrum. This makes it possible to develop these oscillations (fluctuations) in the current structure of the universe, while maintaining large-scale homogeneity and isotropy. This is the permission of the problem of the large-scale structure of the universe.

The main disadvantage of the inflationary model can be considered its dependence on theories that have not yet been proven and are not fully developed.

For example, the model is based on the theory of a single field, which is still simply a hypothesis. It cannot be checked experimentally in laboratory conditions. Another drawback of the model is not understanding where the overhaul and expanding matter came from. Here are three possibilities:

1. The standard theory of the big explosion involves the beginning of inflation at the earliest stage of the evolution of the Universe. But then the problem of singularity is not allowed.
2. The second possibility is the emergence of the Universe from Chaos. Different areas had different temperatures, so compression took place in some places, and in others - expansion. Inflation was supposed to arise in the field of the Universe, which was overheated and expanded. But it is not clear where the primary chaos came from.
3. The third option is a quantum-mechanical path, by means of which a bunch of overheated and expanding matter appeared. In fact, the universe arose from nothing.

The origin of the Universe remains one of the main mysteries of science. Since the beginning of observations of the starry sky, mankind tried to understand how everything surrounded him, and what is outside of our world. With the development of technologies, many natural phenomena submitted to him and even spaces of space, but no one has yet established himself as the universe originated. However, astronomers put forward many theories on this matter, some of them are quite logical and plausible.

The Big Bang Theory

The main theory of the emergence of the universe in its current state is the theory of the Big Bang. For the first time, this term was applied by British astronomer F. Hoyl in 1949. At the same time, the scientist himself considered this assumption about the origin and evolution of the universe of erroneous.

The idea of \u200b\u200bthe expansion of the universe and its development as a result of the explosive process arose at the beginning of the 20th century. Albert Einstein contributed to this, published his theory of relativity. The nonstationary solution of its gravitational equation was pushed by the Soviet physics Friedman on the hypothesis that the universe is a constantly expanding object. According to his version, at first it was a very dense, homogeneous substance. It as a result of a large explosion began to spread, forming us elements of space - galaxies, nebula, stars, planets and other bodies.

The theory of origin of the Universe in Friedman was repeatedly subjected to additions and improvements. In 1948, Astrophysicist Georgy Gamov published a job in which the primary substance was described to a large explosion not only as very dense, but also as very hot. It constantly happened to the reactions of thermonuclear synthesis, as a result of which the cores of light chemical elements were formed. The electromagnetic radiation allocated at the same time has been preserved until now, but in cooled form. The theory was confirmed almost 20 years after the scientists managed to open and measure the temperature of the space background. Studying relic radiation also helped to establish the age of the universe and the distribution of substances in it.

Modern view of the emergence of the Universe

• The theory of the Big Bang - describes what has become a starting mechanism for expanding primary matter.
• Inflationary theory - considers the reasons for the expansion of the substance.
• Friedman expansion model - describes the process of distribution of matter in space.
• Hierarchical theory - describes the occurrence of all space structures.

The chronology of events in the theory of the Big Explosion

The theory of evolution of the Universe implies that to a large explosion, all the universe was in a fundamentally different state. And after - was the stage of development, thanks to which he was filled with particles, chemical elements and other structures. They served as construction material for all cosmic bodies and objects. Each era of development has its duration from minor fractions of a second to billion years. Let's try to set out the theory of the origin of the Universe briefly and in simple language.

Epoch of singularity

Great explosion and origin of the universe in modern her form was preceded by the stage of cosmological singularity. This state of the universum, in which the substance has almost endless values \u200b\u200bof density and temperature, and it is striving for zero.

Cosmological singularity is one of the most difficult issues of modern science. It is impossible to accurately establish what it was to a large explosion. But the endless density of the early universal substance can not be accompanied by its infinite temperature. Consequently, the singular universe contradicts the current laws of physics.

For some assumptions, the epoch of singularity did not exist at all. As a suggestion of a group of scientists, among whom S. Khoking enters, all things could arise from an absolute vacuum ("nothing") due to system oscillations. According to another theory, a large explosion led only to the formation of a metagalaxy, as a "bubble" in the dense substance of the universum. There is also a hypothesis that the universes are formed due to the breaks of singularity within the black holes. It is not possible to establish that it was to a large explosion, it is not possible.

Plakovskaya Epoch

So, in the primary universe there was a catastrophic process, as a result of which the substance began to expand rapidly and cool. With that, to form all the structures of the outer space, the explosion was to happen everywhere. This is the point of the appearance of the universe in its current form.

During the period from zero to 10 -43 seconds, the compound of the universum had physical parameters (temperature, energy, density) corresponding to the strap constant. In such conditions of the Planked Epoch, the birth of particles occurred.

The era of the Great Association

In the period from 10 -43 to 10-35 seconds after a large explosion in a relatively stable system, gravity forces arose. They subsequently contributed to the emergence of stars and planets. Primary matter ceased to be uniformly dense. But electromagnetic and nuclear interaction in it were still combined, so any physico-chemical parameters for this substance do not make sense.

Epoch inflation

When moving to this stage of evolution, the Universe began to accelerately expand. This made it possible to redistribute a highly detailed isotropic primary substance. The epoch took the time lapse from 10 -35 to 10-32 seconds from the explosive process.

Electrosaya epoch

By this time, strong nuclear interaction, as well as gravity, is separated from the primary matter. The period from 10 -32 to 10-12 seconds is the moment of the birth of such elementary particles as Higgs boson and W-, Z particles. Symmetry before the universal substance is completely destroyed.

Quark epoch

From 10 -12 to 10 -6 seconds, all four fundamental interactions begin to exist separately. All substance of the universum is a "quark soup" from massless and structured fundamental particles.

Andronaya Epoch

Androna - particles with strong nuclear interaction began to form from fundamental particles. It is from them that form nucleons forming atomic nuclei, protons and neutrons. The entire process of andronica took about a hundred seconds after a large explosion.

Lepton epoch

The first three minutes of the existence of the universum occurs the formation of leptons, including their subspecies - neutrino. This is another fundamental structures of the universal substance, of which everything in the refinement was built in the future.

Proton epoch

More than 300 thousand years left for the primary process of nucleosynthesis of light chemical elements and the redistribution of the universum substance. It began to dominate the radiation that slowed down the expansion of the outer space. The end of this stage was marked by the possibility of moving thermal photons.

Dark century

None of the usual space structure in the first 500 million years after the emergence of the Universe did not exist. It was filled with hydrogen-helium mass and relic thermal radiation propagating throughout its space.

Reonization

Gradually, the clouds of hydrogen and helium under the influence of gravity began to shrink, the processes of thermonuclear synthesis began to be occurred in them. The first stars appeared. They began to gather in clusters, called galaxies. In the center of the forming galaxies, the source of the most powerful radiation and gravitational attraction was quasar. This process took more than 300 million years.

ERA of substances

Young stars form the protoplanetary discs around themselves, from which entire planetary systems are formed. In this era, 4.6 billion years ago, a solar system with all the planets surrounding it appeared. The whole history of the Universe lasts more than 13.7 billion years.

Future of the Universe

The theory of the emergence of the universe by a large explosion is officially recognized in the scientific world. According to its basic statements, the outer space still continues to evolve and replace one structures with absolutely new. There are two opposite versions of the further development of events:

• Large gap. If the university will continue to expand further, then in the future, the gravitational interaction between its elements will begin rapidly to weaken. There will be a decay of galaxies and their clusters. After that, individual star systems will disintegrate, where the stars gravity can not keep the planets around themselves. Gradually, all elements of the universe collapse again to elementary particles, the laws of physics will cease to make sense. What happens next - it is impossible to predict.
• Big compression. This scenario describes the assumption that the outer space will gradually slow down its extension and starts to shrink back. All its elements form a single mega cluster in which the processes of birth, evolution and death of galaxies will continue. However, the substance will be compressed further, which will lead to the formation of one gigantic galaxy. Space space will again begin to heat up, the relic radiation will destroy the planet and stars. All structures will switch to the state of elementary particles. The universe will acquire its original appearance to the Big Bang.

Any of the basic scenarios of the death of the Universe in the current state implies the decay of all its structures to the fundamental particles and the termination of any interaction forces. It will actually be possible, it is impossible to predict modern science.

The main theories of the origin of the Universe

The big explosion is not the only modern idea of \u200b\u200bthe origin and evolution of the Universe. The scientific world knows many theories of the world's emergence, the main of which are:

• String theory. Its basic statement is that everything that exists consists of minor energy yarns. Such quantum strings can be stretched, curved and located in any directions, which makes the outer space multidimensional. And each of these measurements has its evolutionary staging.
• Theory of the stationary universe. According to this version, a new matter is constantly in the expanding space of space, which make the entire system stable. The idea was popular in the middle of the 20th century, but after the discovery and study of the relic radiation, it has almost no supporters left.

It is possible that all the assumptions about the emergence of the universe recognized now in the scientific world will not be refuted in the future. And the farther and longer, humanity explores space expanses, the more new answers and questions it finds.