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European revolutions of the 17th-18th centuries.

The 17th-18th centuries occupy a special place in the history of modern times. It was a transitional period full of contradictions and struggles, ending the history of European feudalism and marking the beginning of the period of victory and establishment of capitalism in the advanced countries of Europe and America.

Elements of capitalist production originated in the depths of the feudal system. By the middle of the 17th century, the contradictions between capitalism and feudalism acquired a pan-European character. In the Netherlands, already in the 16th century, the first victorious bourgeois revolution took place, as a result of which Holland became “a model capitalist country of the 17th century” (Marx). But this victory of the capitalist economy and bourgeois ideology still had limited, local significance. In England, these contradictions resulted in a bourgeois revolution “on a European scale” (Marx). Simultaneously with the English bourgeois revolution, revolutionary movements took place in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Russia, Poland and a number of other countries. However, on the European continent feudalism survived. For another century, the ruling circles of these states pursued a policy of feudal “stabilization.” Almost everywhere in Europe, feudal-absolutist monarchies remain, and the nobility remains the ruling class.

The economic and political development of European countries proceeded unevenly.
In the 17th century, the largest colonial and trading power in Europe was Holland. The victorious bourgeois revolution of the 16th century not only ensured the successful development of the capitalist economy and trade, but also turned Holland into the freest country in Europe - the center of advanced bourgeois culture, progressive printing, and bookselling.

However, at the end of the 17th century, Holland was forced to give up its place to England, and then to France - countries where there was a more reliable industrial base for trade. In the 18th century, the Dutch economy experienced stagnation and decline. England comes out on top in the world. France by this time stands on the threshold of a bourgeois revolution.

Absolutist Spain, one of the most powerful states in Europe in the 16th century, found itself in a state of deep economic and political decline in the 17th century. It remains a backward feudal country. Italy is experiencing a severe economic and political crisis in this era, having partially lost its national independence since the mid-16th century.

The transition from feudalism to capitalism was carried out mainly as a result of two bourgeois revolutions: the English (1640-1660) and the French (1789-1794). The significance of the French bourgeois-democratic revolution, which opened a new era in the development of culture, is especially great.

No. 2 The formation of Russian absolutism

After the time of unrest, the country was ruined, and there was no legal

government. Russia was forced to create a standing army and establish

order in the country, and for this it was necessary to continue the policy

centralization of the state. As a result of wars in the 17th century, Russia managed

return almost all the lands (except the Baltic and Karelian) seized

she has as a result of the intervention of the beginning of the century. The borders of Russia have approached Crimean

Khanate, North Caucasus and Kazakhstan. In the 17th century there was development

feudal-serf system. As a result of the massive distribution of land

the fortunes of the nobles, the class on which the central government relied, increased

power. The Council Code of 1649 formalized the system of serfdom.

The heredity of serfdom, the right

the landowner to dispose of the peasant's property. Government

made landowners responsible for the fulfillment of their property

peasants state duties,

An indefinite search for runaway and abducted peasants was introduced, and it was prohibited

peasant transitions.

In general, the strengthening of autocracy was legitimized in the cathedral code of 1649.

The Code consisted of 25 chapters and contained about a thousand articles in force

until 1832 Any criticism of the church and blasphemy were punishable by burning at the stake

Persons accused of treason and insulting the honor of the sovereign were punished, as well as

boyars, governor - were executed, a person who exposed himself in the presence of the king

weapons were punishable by cutting off a hand. Any dishonor was severely punished

even in a word, if it was pronounced in the presence of the king, it was emphasized

the idea of ​​the divine origin of royal power. Conventional ritual

dominated not only in the sphere of official representation, but also in

everyday life Everything was regulated - from the royal meal to going to bed.

The cathedral code provided for the performance of various services, the ransom of prisoners,

customs policy, the position of various categories of the population in the state,

provided for the possibility of exchanging estates, as well as exchanging estates

to the estate, which merged nobles and boyars into one class. Cathedral Code

limited the growth of church land ownership, which reflected the trend

subordination of the church to the state. In the chapter about “posad people” there were

“white” settlements were liquidated, their population was included in the settlement. All

the population of the city paid taxes to the state. Transitions from one

Posad in another and marriage to women from another posad. The townspeople received

monopoly right of trade in cities. Peasants had no right to keep

shops in cities, but could only trade with carts in shopping arcades. And in

1667, the Russian government adopted a new trade charter, in connection with

which foreign merchants were prohibited from conducting retail trade within

Russian state. The growth of production ensured the growth of cities (225, without

Ukraine and Siberia). During the years of aggravation of social contradictions, all layers

the ruling class rallied around the king, which contributed to

strengthening autocracy and centralization of control. Russian

the government tried to draw the Cossacks into its sphere of influence, providing them

assistance with money, weapons, while at the same time assigning defense functions to them

southern borders of the state. In 1667, the Cossacks for the first time brought a common

taking the oath of allegiance. In 1679 - 1681, household taxation was introduced.

The unit for levying taxes is the peasant or townsman's yard. In 1674

Black-growing peasants were prohibited from enrolling in the nobility. Title changed

Moscow sovereigns after the reunification of left-bank Ukraine with Russia.”

Great Sovereign, Tsar of All Great and Little and White Russia, autocrat” C

In the 80s of the 17th century, the convening of zemstvo councils ceased. The latter accepted

decision to reunite Ukraine with Russia in 1653. Absolutism did not need

class representative body.. The government switched to practice

invitations to meetings of those classes in whose opinion it was

interested. These include a meeting with trading people in Moscow in

1662 due to the financial crisis (copper riot); cathedral act in 1682

abolished localism. DECREE ON THE CONVENING OF THE LAST Zemsky Council

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, but did not take place due to the continuation of hostilities.

The Boyar Duma was attended by 89 members from an aristocratic family, and in

1770 - 71 members; they were replaced by Duma clerks and nobles. However, the boyar Duma with

1638 to 1700 expanded from 35 members to 94.

Therefore, Alexey Mikhailovich created a state room with her, and

his son Fyodor Alekseevich in 1681 the execution chamber, which consisted of a narrow

circle of people where previously discussed issues submitted to the

consideration in the boyar duma. The reorganization of the order was carried out

systems - several orders began to obey one person. For

In the 18th century, over 80 orders functioned, and by the end 40 remained.

An innovation in the order system was the introduction of the order

secret affairs, which controlled the activities of the remaining orders, and

subordinated not to the boyar duma, but to the tsar personally. In 1650, a counting order was introduced.

Organizing control over officials’ funds is another sign

absolutism. These regiments were assembled only for the duration of the war. In order to centralize power, neighboring counties are united into

“categories” - military administrative districts - prototypes of Peter the Great's provinces.

Belgorod, Smolensk, Tobolsk and other categories are being created. Home them

the task was to mobilize forces against the enemy. The power of the governor was strengthened

places. Retired military men who had participated many times were appointed as voivodes.

on campaigns, wounded and unable to conduct military service.

They replaced all officials of zemstvo elected bodies (city officials,

clerks, court and siege heads, labial elders). Zemstvo administration

survived only in Pomorie. The governor and his servants were not paid by the state,

and the local population the Church Council of 1666 passed

a decision pleasing to the king: Patriarch Nikon was exiled as a simple monk to

monastery. Thus we see that in the 17th century the highest stage occurs

centralization of power – the emergence of absolutism. The Russian Tsar, like

absolute monarch, ruled based on bureaucratic bureaucracy

apparatus, a standing army and police, the church is subordinate to it, as

ideological power.

No. 3 Formation of the Russian Empire under Peter I

On January 27, 1689, Peter, by order of his mother, married Evdokia Lopukhina, the daughter of a Moscow boyar. But the newlyweds spent time with friends in the German settlement. There, in 1691, he met the daughter of a German artisan, Anna Mons, who became his lover.

In September 1689, Princess Sophia was exiled to the Novodevichy Convent, and her supporters were executed. In 1689, having removed his sister from power, Pyotr Alekseevich became the de facto king. After the death of his mother in 1695, and in 1696 of his brother-co-ruler Ivan V, on January 29, 1696, he became an autocrat, the sole king of all Rus' and legally.

Having barely established himself on the throne, Peter I personally participated in the Azov campaigns against Turkey (1695–1696), which ended with the capture of Azov and access to the shores of the Sea of ​​Azov. Thus, Russia's first access to the southern seas was opened.

Description of work

The economic and political development of European countries proceeded unevenly.
In the 17th century, the largest colonial and trading power in Europe was Holland. The victorious bourgeois revolution of the 16th century not only ensured the successful development of the capitalist economy and trade, but also turned Holland into the freest country in Europe - the center of advanced bourgeois culture, progressive printing, and bookselling.

The War of Independence of the North American Colonies and

USA education.

The Netherlands was one of the provinces of the Habsburg Empire and possessed in the second half of the 16th century. extremely developed economy. Emperors Charles V and Philip II actively took advantage of this, constantly increasing taxes, which hampered the development of trade and entrepreneurship. The catalyst for the revolutionary events was the persecution of supporters of one of the varieties of the Protestant religion - Calvinism. As a result, in 1566, a spontaneous uprising began throughout the country, accompanied by the destruction of Catholic churches. He was supported by the local nobility, as well as the bourgeoisie. The movement had a pronounced national liberation character, since the main demand was initially the restoration of traditional Dutch autonomy, and then complete separation from the empire. As a result of a long struggle, the Netherlands was divided in two. The southern provinces, whose nobility and bourgeoisie were less radical, remained within the Empire, acquiring some internal autonomy. The northern provinces in 1588 declared themselves an independent state - the Republic of the United Provinces. The exit of the Northern Netherlands from the Habsburg Empire contributed to the rapid economic development of the republic. The bourgeoisie began to play a decisive role in the political life of the country.

If in the Netherlands the revolutionary events were primarily of a national liberation nature, then in England they immediately acquired an anti-feudal overtones. During the reign of Charles I Stuart (1625-1648), all the conditions for the start of the revolution were in place: high taxes, the king's foreign policy aimed at rapprochement with the country's main enemy - Spain, persecution of English Calvinist Puritans. The House of Commons of the English Parliament became the center of discontent, and Puritanism became the ideological basis of the protest. Parliament had not been convened for more than 10 years, and Charles I ruled autocratically. Only in 1640, when the king needed new means to suppress the uprising in Scotland, was Parliament reconvened. He immediately took a very radical position: the king’s closest advisers were sentenced to death; in 1641, the “Great Remonstrance” was drawn up, which listed the monarch’s abuses and called for the government to rule “in accordance with parliament,” that is, in fact, to limit the rights of the king. After a failed armed coup attempt, Charles I fled to the north of the country. A civil war begins. Society turned out to be split into supporters of parliament and royalists supporting the king. A long and bitter civil conflict became the main feature of the English bourgeois revolution. As a result, the parliamentary army, reorganized by O. Cromwell, one of the most active figures in the revolution, won brilliant victories, Charles I was handed over to parliament and the civil war ended.

During the war, the feudal structure of land ownership was destroyed: the lands of the king, royalists, churches were confiscated, which were transferred for free sale (that is, they actually completely became the property of the big bourgeoisie), the principle of “knightly holding” was abolished, according to which landowners were exempt from government payments . The big bourgeoisie achieved political and economic dominance in the country.

In 1646-1653. contradictions are growing between various socio-political forces that have different ideas for the future development of England. In parliament, from the very beginning of the revolution, there were two groups. The Presbyterians, who were based on representatives of the big bourgeoisie and the “new” landowners, believed that the revolution had already achieved its goal and at this stage it was necessary to seek a compromise with the defeated side. Independents, who demanded deeper changes, proposed reforming the electoral system in order to increase the representation of cities and include the highest judiciary and military leadership within the competence of parliament. The situation was aggravated by the fact that in the 40s a movement of “levellers” (equalizers) arose; the basis of their program was the demand for equality of rights (primarily electoral rights) of all segments of society. Charles I took advantage of the disputes within the rebels and escaped from custody. But he was soon captured and in January 1649, by sentence of parliament, he was beheaded. A republic is proclaimed in England. But internal disagreements within the country's leadership did not stop. At the same time, the public, tired of instability and hostility, begins to strive to establish a strong government in the country that would preserve all the gains of the revolution, but would not strive to expand and deepen it. The personification of such aspirations was the army and its leader, Oliver Cromwell. In December 1653, Parliament was dissolved, and Cromwell was proclaimed head of state with the title of Lord Protector. The protectorate regime and the subsequent temporary restoration of the Stuart royal dynasty (1669 - 1688) did not change the essence of the gains that the country achieved during the revolution. In English society, the economic and political positions of the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie and the “new” nobility have noticeably strengthened.

The Great French Revolution can be divided into three stages:

From July 14, 1789 to August 1792, power was seized by the large bourgeois and liberal nobility, which advocated a constitutional monarchy. In September 1791, King Louis XVI approved a new constitution that established a constitutional monarchy in the country. The Constituent Assembly gave way to the Legislative Assembly. France started a war against Austria and Prussia.

From August 1792 to June 1793 The stage began with a popular uprising in August 1792. The Legislative Assembly decided to remove the king from power and convene the National Assembly (Convent). At this stage, political leadership passed to the Girondins (right), representing the commercial, industrial and agricultural bourgeoisie. They were opposed by the Jacobins (leftists), among whom M. Robespierre, J. Danton, J-P stood out. Marat. The latter expressed the interests of the democratic strata of the bourgeoisie, which acted in alliance with the peasantry and plebeians. In September 1792, France was proclaimed a republic, the French king and his wife were executed.

From June 1793 to July 1794 Power passed into the hands of the Jacobins. To save the revolution, the Jacobins proposed introducing an emergency regime in the country, which formalized the Jacobin dictatorship. Subordinate to the Convention, which remained the highest legislative body, was the Committee of Public Safety - a government of 11 people, headed by Robespierre. In June 1793, the Convention adopted a new Constitution. The army was reorganized and strengthened, which ensured victory in the war with Prussia and Austria. The convention introduced a revolutionary calendar, abolished church holidays, replacing them with republican ones. However, after the victory in the war and the suppression of rebellions within France, disagreements intensified among the Jacobins. Jacobin terror is growing. The Jacobin dictatorship acquired more and more enemies not only among the top of society, but also among the lower classes. On Thermidor 9 (July 27), 1794, Robespierre and his comrades were arrested and guillotined the next day. This Thermidorian coup marked the end of the revolution. The French Revolution was a significant milestone in the history of modern times. She swept away all class barriers, introduced a new state structure - a parliamentary republic, contributed to the development of parliamentary democracy, and made the state a guarantor of equal rights for all citizens.

In general, the bourgeois revolutions of the 17th-18th centuries. put an end to feudalism in Europe. The political, economic, and social appearance of world civilization experienced dramatic changes. Western society transformed from feudal to bourgeois.

The development of capitalism in the colonies and the formation of the North American nation came into conflict with the policy of the metropolis, which viewed the colonies only as a source of raw materials and a sales market. In 1774, the 1st Continental Congress of representatives of the colonies met in Philadelphia, which called for a boycott of British goods and at the same time tried to achieve a compromise with the mother country. Armed detachments of colonists spontaneously begin to form. The Continental Congress assumed the functions of the central government of the colonies. His first decision was the creation of a regular army led by George Washington. On July 4, 1776, the Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence, authored by T. Jefferson. The Declaration announced the separation of 13 colonies from the mother country and the formation of an independent state - the United States of America. The Declaration became the first state legal document in history to proclaim the sovereignty of the people and the foundations of bourgeois-democratic freedoms.

In 1775 - 1778 military operations began, which went down in history as the War of American Independence. These events can be considered a bourgeois revolution, since they led to the overthrow of the colonial yoke and the formation of an independent American nation-state. The previous bans of the English Parliament and the King, which hampered the development of industry and trade, were abolished. The landed latifundia of the English aristocracy and feudal remnants were destroyed. Slavery was limited and gradually eliminated in the northern states. The preconditions were created for the development of capitalism in North America.

Literature

1. History of the Middle Ages: Textbook. for students of history fak. ped. Institute / M. L. Abramson, A. A. Kirillova, N. F. Kolesnitsky and others / ed. N. F. Kolesnitsky. - M.: Education, 1986. P. 47-64.

2. Samygin, P.S., Samygin, S.I., Shevelev, V.N., Sheveleva, E.V. History for bachelors / P.S. Samygin, S.I. Samygin, V.N. Shevelev, E.V. Sheveleva. - Rostov-n/D.: Phoenix, 2011. P. 176 - 178, P. 186 - 193.

History of European revolutions of the 16th-20th centuries

Now in Russia the word “revolution” has become almost a dirty word. This is explained by the fact that the revolution of 1917 is considered by many to be a disaster for Russia; In addition, after the revolutionary August 1991, Russians, as is generally believed, began to live worse.

Meanwhile, in the past, revolutions in most cases changed people's lives for the better. Let us consider as an example 12 revolutions of the 16th-20th centuries.

The Dutch revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries against Spanish rule led to the emergence of Europe's first bourgeois republic (Republic of the United Provinces). The state structure of this republic was archaic and disorderly, but the first bourgeoisie appeared, which ensured the “golden age” of this republic. This revolution did not lead to significant changes in social institutions.

The English Revolution of 1640-1688 gave rise to new social institutions. In 1689, the “Bill of Rights” was adopted, which became one of the first documents that legally approved human rights. This document formulated the rights of English citizens, such as freedom from fines and confiscations without a court order, freedom from cruel and unusual punishment, from excessive fines, freedom of speech and debate, the ability to choose parliament (for wealthy citizens), freedom to petition king, etc.

The rights of the king were partially limited. The result of this revolution was the rapid economic development of England, which in the 18th century became the “mistress of the seas” and the “workshop of the world.” The English bourgeoisie began to develop rapidly.

The American Revolution of 1775-1783 gave people the “Declaration of Independence of the United States.”

In addition, the American colonies adopted local “bills of rights,” which proclaimed freedom of speech, conscience, assembly, personal integrity, etc.

The Great French Revolution of 1789 was the most important of the bourgeois-democratic revolutions, so we need to focus on it.

During this revolution, the social institutions of France changed most dramatically - from feudal to bourgeois-democratic. In 1789, the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen” was adopted, which was based on the concept of equality and freedom given to everyone from birth.

Personal freedom, freedom of speech, freedom of belief, and the right to resist oppression were declared the natural rights of man and citizen.

Before the revolution in France, the exploitation of the common population intensified: serfdom, the right of the first night, etc. (there were long discussions about the right of the first night, whether it actually existed; but, in any case, such relations between aristocrats and women from the lower classes were at least a fact, if not a law). In addition, natural disasters and crop failures pushed the revolution.

In 1789, the Constituent Assembly of France, which gained power thanks to the revolution, abolished personal feudal duties, seigneurial courts, church tithes, the privileges of individual provinces, cities and corporations, and declared the equality of all before the law in the payment of state taxes and in the right to occupy civil, military and ecclesiastical positions. positions. Independent courts were introduced.

Mark Twain later wrote (“A Connecticut Yankee”) “ It seemed as if I was reading about France and the French before their forever memorable and blessed revolution, which in one bloody wave washed away a thousand years of such abominations and collected an ancient debt - half a drop of blood for every barrel of it, squeezed out of the people by slow torture during a thousand years of untruth, shame and torments such as cannot be found in hell." By abominations here we mean serfdom, etc.

As usually happens in history, after something bright, unpleasant things come to the fore and discredit this bright thing. A campaign of “de-Christianization” began, mockery of Christian shrines; The terrible Jacobin terror began, comparable in crime level to Nazi terror.

The terror ended with the fall of the Jacobins (Robespierre) and the coming to power of the “Committee of Public Safety,” then the Directory (Thermidorians), who quickly became famous for their corruption. The executioner Sanson wrote in his memoirs about Robespierre: “ Robbers... He was right: he had long ago sent all honest republicans under my ax.”

Poverty and hunger reigned in the country (this was due, first of all, to the destruction of old social institutions, when new ones had not yet had time to establish themselves).

A real threat of the end of the revolution and a return to the past looms over France. Counter-revolutionary sentiments in society were extremely strong. And then France was lucky: in 1899 Napoleon Bonaparte came to power.

Napoleon turned out to be a reasonable ruler (at first), and with energetic measures (but without great terror) he brought order to the country. He carried out a number of successful reforms (the founding of the French Bank, the adoption of the civil code, etc.).

Napoleon was a dictator, and there was no democracy left in France under him; but life for ordinary French people in general became much better. Historian Edward Radzinsky wrote:

“He easily took away the freedom of the French. It turned out that the crowd does not like freedom at all, their only idol is equality (it is not for nothing that it is connected by secret ties with despotism). And Bonaparte truly equalized all the French - both in rights and in lack of rights. Only one person in France had the right to his own opinion.”.

We can say that of the three famous words of the French Revolution - “Liberty, Equality and Fraternity” the first one disappeared, but the other two remained.

Napoleon gave the French about 14 prosperous years. But over time, due to his greatness, he lost his sense of reality, got involved in military adventures and eventually became completely “bankrupt.” After the defeat of France at Waterloo, the old (monarchical) forces in Europe, in a certain sense, took revenge on the revolutionary (republican) ones.

But thanks to the 14 years of Napoleon's rule, the ideas of the revolution were not discredited: the French (and partly other peoples) believed that the revolution could make their lives better.

In 1830, a new revolution took place in France (and also Belgium). At that time, Europe was ruled by the “Holy Alliance” (Russia, Prussia and Austria), which aimed to prevent revolutions. But this alliance was unable or unwilling to suppress the new revolution. As far as the author can tell, this happened for three reasons:

1) In Prussia and Austria there were also internal unrest and revolutionary unrest;

2) A major uprising occurred in Poland, which Russia was able to suppress only in 1831;

3) The French Revolution did not set as its goal a new terror (apparently the French learned from their mistakes) and even the establishment of a republic; instead, the French seemed to simply change the ruling dynasty. Therefore, the Holy Alliance lacked the motivation to go to war with France.

E. Tarle (“Napoleon”) wrote about the unrest in Prussia:

“It is clear that he remained in the same mood that we have noted more than once. But suddenly - towards the very end, under the obvious impression of the news that came to St. Helena from Europe through newspapers and oral reports about German revolutionary ferment, about student unrest, about liberation movements in Germany, etc. - the emperor changed dramatically front and declared (this was already in 1819) to the same Montolon something diametrically opposed to his previous statements.<Я должен был бы основать свою империю на поддержке якобинцев>. Because the Jacobin revolution is a volcano through which Prussia can easily be blown up. And as soon as the revolution won in Prussia, it seemed to him that all of Prussia would be in his power and all of Europe would fall into his hands (<моим оружием и силой якобинизма>). True, when he spoke about a future or possible revolution, his thought did not go beyond petty-bourgeois<якобинизма>and did not imply a social revolution. The Jacobin Revolution sometimes began to seem to him like an ally, which he had pushed aside in vain.”

Having come to power, the new Emperor of France, Louis Philippe, introduced some liberal reforms and abolished excessive court splendor. Life for the French has become a little more comfortable. Subsequently, he, like many other rulers, began to abuse his power and get too close to the Holy Alliance, and this led to the revolution of 1848.

This time the revolution spread throughout Europe. The success of the revolution of 1830 forced Europeans to increasingly believe in the revolution, that it could change life for the better. Unrest swept through the Italian and German states, Austria, and Romania. The Holy Alliance has practically lost its strength.

The uprising in Prussia did not overthrow the monarchy, but the king had to make concessions to the population, and Prussia became a constitutional monarchy. Much the same thing happened in other German states.

As a result of the revolution, France received universal suffrage, civil liberties, the unemployed were employed in road and earthworks, and improved houses and city streets. True, after 1848, bourgeois-democratic reforms were suspended. Later, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (Napoleon III) came to power and restored the monarchy for some time.

The defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 led to another revolution, which brought a new republican government to power. In 1871, elections to the national assembly were held, and Adolphe Thiers was elected head of the executive branch.

Thiers' government managed to quickly restore France after defeat in the war. Freedom of speech came to the country again, etc. Then a constitution was adopted and France became a republic for a long time.

In general, the general pattern of revolutions turned out to be something like this: having come to power, the new government was initially afraid of popular anger and therefore carried out constructive reforms and made concessions to the population. Over time, having acquired a taste for power, it began to discredit itself and a new revolution took place.

The revolutions of the 19th century constantly “remembered” the experience of the French Revolution of 1789 and returned to the transformations of that time. Lenin said: “ Take the great French Revolution. It’s not called great for nothing. For her class, for which she worked, for the bourgeoisie, she did so much that the entire 19th century, the century that gave civilization and culture to all humanity, passed under the sign of the French Revolution. All over the world he did only what he carried out, carried out piecemeal, completed what the great French revolutionaries of the bourgeoisie had created” (V.I. Lenin, I All-Russian Congress on Out-of-School Education. Speech about deceiving the people with slogans of freedom and equality. May 19, Soch., vol. 29, p. 342.).

19th-century intellectuals admired the French Revolution and downplayed the Terror that discredited it. Here's how Mark Twain wrote about it (“A Connecticut Yankee”): “ We must remember and not forget that there were two “reigns of terror”; during one, the murders were committed in the heat of passion, during the other, in cold blood and deliberately; one lasted several months, the other a thousand years; one cost the lives of ten thousand people, the other – a hundred million. But for some reason we are horrified by the first, smallest, so to speak, momentary terror; and meanwhile, what is the horror of instant death under an ax compared to slow dying throughout your life from hunger, cold, insults, cruelty and heartache? What is instant death by lightning compared to slow death at the stake? All the victims of that Red Terror, over which we were so diligently taught to shed tears and be horrified, could fit in one city cemetery; but all of France could not accommodate the victims of that ancient and genuine terror, indescribably more bitter and terrible; however, no one ever taught us to understand the full horror of it and tremble with pity for its victims.”.

The author believes that in the 19th century in Europe and Russia they talked about Jacobin terror no less than they talked about Nazi terror in the 20th century. But in Soviet history textbooks they were rather silent about this side of the French Revolution.

This historical experience speaks of an obvious paradox: on the one hand, the saying “the revolution is made by romantics, and scoundrels enjoy its fruits” is absolutely true; and on the other hand, despite all this, revolutions in most cases were a benefit for society.

England in the 19th century also moved towards democratization, only this happened without revolutions. This is explained simply - the ruling elite of England understood that if it did not make concessions to the population, it would receive the same thing that the elite of France received. The author has already written about this principle - the government works better and does not allow itself to fall into despotism if it is afraid of revolution.

Thanks to these transformations, the entire 19th century was full of optimism and faith in progress. In addition, then people believed in revolution, this word was very popular. In Russia there was a party of social revolutionaries, which enjoyed great support from the population.

And for this reason, two revolutions took place in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century - they occurred despite the fact that there was no serious famine or other similar problems in the country.

The first revolution took place in 1905. Edward Radzinsky writes (“Nicholas II”) that this revolution could well have destroyed the ruling dynasty, and the tsar was saved only by concessions to the people - the adoption of a constitution. Freedom of speech and elections have come to Russia.

Probably, this revolution can also be considered successful. Although formally Russia was and remains a monarchy, the standard of living of Russian people has risen slightly - freedom of speech and the opportunity to influence the authorities always raise the level of trust in the authorities among the population. This was also facilitated by the rapid economic growth of Russia in 1906-1916.

In 1917, the well-known February Revolution took place. Historian Felix Razumovsky (program “Who are we?”) calls it “Russian absurdity”, because the objective prerequisites for the revolution did not seem to exist: there was no famine in the country, the Russian army was beginning to win the war (Brusilovsky breakthrough). The explanation of this “absurdity,” in the author’s opinion, is as follows:

1) Then everyone believed that the revolution could change people's lives for the better. And the experience of the 1905 revolution, as mentioned above, also confirmed this;

2) One should not assume that the life of Russians at the beginning of the 20th century was so prosperous. Most likely, then all those “dark sides” of capitalism that we see in Russia now were already shining through. As far as the author knows, in the 60s of the 20th century the crime rate in the USSR was several times lower than in Russia before the revolution. In the countryside of Tsarist Russia there was malnutrition, and in the cities there was unemployment and epidemics.

And one more thing: when we say that the government of Nicholas II worked well, this should be supplemented by one consideration - it worked like that because it was afraid of a new revolution (though even this did not save it).

In 1918, revolutions occurred in Germany and Austria after defeat in the war. We can say that this is the end of the history of the confrontation between the bourgeois-democratic and class-monarchical systems; However, it must be added that history continues continuously, so in it the end of one period means the beginning of another.

We can summarize: of the 12 revolutions listed, only two seemed to end in failure: the French Revolution of 1789 and the Russian Revolution of 1917. At the same time, the French Revolution, one might say, still won more than a hundred years after it began.

8 revolutions ended successfully, quickly leading to positive changes. About 2 more revolutions - the German and Austrian 1918 - it is difficult to say something unambiguous: on the one hand, life in the German Weimar Republic, which appeared after the revolution, was very difficult, which led to the Nazis coming to power; on the other hand, after the defeat of the Nazis in World War II, Germany and Austria again became republics, and life there improved.

In general, European revolutions managed to change the world for the better. The second half of the twentieth century, as the author sees it, was the most prosperous period in the history of mankind, and this was thanks to revolutions.

In the 21st century, two revolutions took place in Ukraine, on which high hopes were initially placed. So far these hopes have not come true, but perhaps the time has not yet come to reap their fruits? The history of European revolutions lasted 5 centuries, and probably in Ukraine the history of new revolutions will last quite a long time.

It can be assumed that in the future in Ukraine there will no longer be revolutions, but changes in the ruling elites that have managed to compromise themselves as a result of elections.

When European revolutions took place, their main goal was to eliminate class differences and exploitation of the lower strata of the population. Current revolutions have other issues on the agenda - for example, an effective fight against corruption. Our time is filled with all sorts of social problems (for example, Internet drug addiction), which politicians simply do not talk about yet.

The main idea of ​​the Ukrainian Maidan - the population should change power until the authorities get used to responsibility - has so far remained unrealized. But we can hope that the Maidan will ultimately form a generation of responsible politicians who will effectively solve such problems.

Sources:

1) Wikipedia.

2) Mark Twain. A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court.

3) Edward Radzinsky. Walking with an executioner.

4) Edward Radzinsky. Kingdom of the executioner.

5) E. Tarle. Napoleon.

6) Lenin V.I. Complete works.

7) Edward Radzinsky. Nicholas II.

8) Felix Razumovsky. Program "Who are we?"

9) E. Gaidar. State and evolution.

Absolutism in Europe

In the first half of the 16th century. In Europe, the formation of centralized states - France, England, Spain - is being completed. In these countries, a new form of political structure is being formed - absolutism. Its characteristic features were:

Unlimited power of the sovereign,

Refusal to convene estate-representative institutions

Extensive bureaucracy

A powerful army subordinate to the sovereign.

The church is fully integrated into the state system. The ideological basis for absolutism was the theory of the divine nature of royal power.

Reasons for the establishment of absolutism:

Deformation of traditional classes.

Strengthening royal power

The Reformation significantly weakened the position of the clergy,

support of the emerging bourgeoisie of royal power, as a guarantee of its stability and prosperity.

Using the interest of a number of classes, the monarchy manages to rise to the position of a “supra-class” force and win absolute power.

With absolutism, a new public law, national principle management.
Absolutism was formed in the 16th-17th centuries, primarily in countries such as France, England, and Spain, which sought to establish their hegemony in Europe.

Of course, the formation of absolutism did not always go smoothly: provincial separatism and the centrifugal aspirations of the large aristocracy persisted; continuous wars hampered state development. However, Spain under Philip II (1556-1598), England under Elizabeth I (1558-1603), France under Louis XIV (1661-1715) reached the peak of development of the absolutist system.

Lecture No. 17 European revolutions of the 16th-18th centuries

A revolution is a radical, relatively rapid, violent change in political and social structures, as well as the basic value systems that have developed in society. Revolutions are close to riots and uprisings, palace coups, but only revolutions lead to a global breakdown of the old foundations.

Why did revolutions appear in modern times? Historians believe that revolution is one of the ways to modernize traditional society. As a rule, they do not occur in fully traditional societies and are unlikely to occur in societies that have achieved a high level of modernization.

Societies at a transitional stage from traditionalism to modernization are subject to revolutions.
The first bourgeois revolution in European history took place in the Netherlands. This country, which was one of the provinces of the vast Habsburg empire, had an extremely developed economy in the second half of the 16th century.

The catalyst for revolutionary events was the persecution of supporters of Calvinism. As a result, in 1566, a spontaneous uprising began throughout the country, accompanied by the destruction of Catholic churches. The mass protest movement was supported by the local nobility, as well as the bourgeoisie, seeking to free themselves from the tax burden. The movement had a pronounced national liberation character, since the main demand was initially the restoration of traditional Dutch autonomy, and then complete separation from the empire. However, Emperor Philip II took an extremely tough position. Troops are being sent to the Netherlands. Looting and devastation inflicted by troops, mass executions, and emergency taxes threatened the Netherlands with complete economic disaster. A partisan struggle is unfolding throughout the country. After the successful actions of the partisans who captured the fortresses of Bril and Vlissingen in 1572, the Northern Netherlands is completely freed from the occupying forces and proclaims Prince William of Orange as its ruler.
In England, revolutionary events immediately became anti-feudal coloring. The unlimited power of the monarch and the virtual lack of rights for the majority of society hindered the development of the state along the bourgeois path. In England, during the reign of Charles I Stuart (1625-1648), all the conditions were in place for the start of a revolution: the government’s financial measures leading to an increase in taxes and duties, the king’s foreign policy aimed at rapprochement with the country’s main enemy - Spain, persecution of the English Calvinist-Puritans.

After a failed armed coup attempt, Charles I fled to the north of the country. A civil war begins. In 1646 Charles I was handed over to Parliament and the civil war ended. During the war years, the feudal structure of land ownership was destroyed: the lands of the king, royalists, and churches were confiscated and transferred for free sale (that is, they actually completely became the property of the big bourgeoisie). In 1646, the principle of “knighthood” was abolished, according to which landowners were exempt from government payments. The big bourgeoisie achieved the realization of all its goals, achieving political and economic dominance in the country.
The next stage of the revolution (1646-1653) led to the strengthening of the economic and political positions of the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie and the “new” nobility. The idea that the government must rely on the law and act strictly within its framework is rooted in the British mentality, and the law itself must derive its authority from the consent of its subjects. These provisions became the basis of the civil society that developed in England in subsequent centuries.

However, the Great French Bourgeois Revolution was of greatest importance for Western civilization. It dealt a powerful blow to feudal foundations, crushing them not only in France, but throughout Europe. French absolutism has been experiencing a serious crisis since the middle of the 18th century: constant financial difficulties, foreign policy failures, growing social tension - all this undermines the foundations of the state. Tax oppression along with old feudal duties made the situation of the French peasantry unbearable. The situation was aggravated by objective factors: in the second half of the 80s, crop failures hit France, and the country was gripped by famine. The government was on the verge of bankruptcy. In the face of growing dissatisfaction with royal power, King Louis XVI of France convenes the States General (a medieval class-representative body that has not met in France since 1614). The General States, consisting of representatives of the clergy, nobility and the third estate (bourgeoisie and peasants), began their work on May 5, 1780. Deputies from the third estate achieved joint discussion of issues and decision-making based on the real number of votes instead of estate voting. All these phenomena marked the beginning of the revolution in France. After the States General proclaimed itself the National Assembly, that is, a body representing the interests of the entire nation, the king began to gather troops towards Paris. In response to this, a spontaneous uprising broke out in the city, during which on July 14 the fortress - the Bastille prison - was captured. This event became a symbol of the beginning of the revolution and was a transition to an open struggle with the ruling regime.

Historians, as a rule, distinguish several stages during the French bourgeois revolution:

The first (summer 1789 - September 1794) - constitutional stage;

The second (September 1792 - June 1793) - the period of struggle between the Jacobins and Girondins;

Third (June 1793 - July 1794) - Jacobin dictatorship

Fourth (July 1794 - November 1799) - the decline of the revolution.
The first stage was the active work of the National Assembly, which adopted a number of important resolutions in August 1789:

Church tithes were abolished free of charge,

The remaining duties of the peasants were subject to ransom,

The traditional privileges of the nobility were also eliminated.

On August 26, 1789, the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen” was adopted, within the framework of which the general principles of building a new society were proclaimed - natural human rights, equality of all before the law, the principle of popular sovereignty. Later, laws were issued that met the interests of the bourgeoisie and aimed at eliminating the guild system, internal customs barriers, and the confiscation and sale of church lands. By the autumn of 1791, the preparation of the first French Constitution, which proclaimed a constitutional monarchy in the country, was completed. The executive power remained in the hands of the king and the ministers appointed by him, and the legislative power was transferred to the unicameral Legislative Assembly,

On August 10, 1792, an uprising occurred in Paris; Louis XVI and his entourage were arrested. The Legislative Assembly changed the electoral law (elections became direct and universal) and convened the National Convention. On September 22, 1792, France was proclaimed a republic. The first stage of the revolution has ended. The leading position in the Convention is occupied by the most radical group of Jacobins. Unlike their opponents, the Girondins, the Jacobins, led by M. Robespierre, put the principle of revolutionary necessity above the principles of freedom and tolerance proclaimed in 1789. There is a struggle between these groups on all the most important issues. To eliminate the threat of monarchist conspiracies within the country, the Jacobins sought the conviction and execution of Louis XVI, which caused shock throughout monarchical Europe. On April 6, 1793, the Committee of Public Safety was created to fight against counter-revolution and wage war, which later became the main body of the new revolutionary government. On June 2, 1793, the Jacobins managed to organize an uprising against the Girondins, during which the latter were destroyed. More than a year of Jacobin dictatorship began. The revised Constitution (June 24, 1793) completely abolished all feudal duties, turning peasants into free owners. Although formally all power was concentrated in the Convention, in reality it belonged to the Committee of Public Safety, which had virtually unlimited powers. With the Jacobins coming to power, France was swept by a wave of large-scale terror: thousands of people declared “suspicious” were thrown into prison and executed. The deputies of the Convention, who were not satisfied and frightened by the cruelty of Robespierre, organized an anti-Jacobin conspiracy. On July 27, 1794, he was arrested and executed. The Jacobin dictatorship fell.
In 1795, a new Constitution was drafted. The Legislative Assembly was created again; executive power passed into the hands of the Directory, consisting of five members. In the interests of the big bourgeoisie, all emergency economic decrees of the Jacobins were canceled.
The role of the army, on which the Directory regime relied, is constantly increasing. In turn, the authority of the government, which had discredited itself by oscillations between monarchists and Jacobins, as well as open money-grubbing and corruption, was steadily declining. On November 9, 1799, a coup d'etat led by Napoleon Bonaparte took place. The bourgeois revolutions of the 17th and 18th centuries put an end to the feudal order in Europe. . Western society transformed from feudal to bourgeois.

England in the middle of the 17th century. Feudal orders and the development of capitalist relations. "Classical character" of primitive accumulation in England. Transformation of the social structure of English society. Gentry and the "old nobility". The main categories of dependent peasants (Fremen, copyholders, leaseholders, cotters). Yeomanry as a socio-economic category. The collapse of the guild system in English cities. The problem of "new cities". The growth of manufacturing production, the ratio and production specialization of dispersed and centralized manufactories. The situation of trade and financial bourgeois groups. City of London. Merchant companies. Regional features of the socio-economic development of England in the first half of the 17th century. Exacerbation of social contradictions in English society.

Domestic policies of James I (1603-1625) and Charles I (1625-1649). Political treatises of James I. Duke of Buckingham. Institutional features of English absolutism. Intertwining of religious and constitutional conflicts. The development of the Anglican Church and the Puritan movement. The specificity of the political orientation of the main trends of English Puritanism on the eve of the revolution. Presbyterians and the formation of parliamentary opposition. The first program documents of the Puritan opposition (“Apology for the House of Commons”, “Petition of Right”, “Petition of Root and Branch”, “Great Remonstrance”). The non-parliamentary reign of Charles I (1629-1640). The activities of Archbishop W. Laud. Star Chamber and High Commission. Financial policy of the absolutist monarchy on the eve of the revolution. Foreign policy of England in the first half of the 17th century. as a factor in the formation of a revolutionary situation. Increasing rivalry with the United Provinces and rapprochement with Spain early in the reign of James I. French and German policies of James I. England's entry into the Thirty Years' War. The conflict with France in 1625-1627, its economic and religious reasons. The failure of military expeditions to Cadiz and La Rochelle. Rebellion in Scotland 1637-1638 Rebellion in Ireland in 1641. Convening of the Long Parliament. Causes of the early bourgeois revolution in England.

The beginning of the revolution. Social composition and political factions of the Long Parliament. Lord Straford's trial and the Root and Branch petition. Political program of the opposition in the “Great Remonstrance” and “Nineteen Proposals”. Decoration of the parliamentary and royal camps. First Civil War (1642-1647). Progress of military operations. Battle of Marston Moor (1644). Cavaliers and Roundheads. Oliver Cromwell. Creation of a “new model” army. Battle of Naseby (1645). Legislation of the Long Parliament. Changes in the public administration system. Agrarian legislation. Solving financial issues. Religious reform of 1643 ("League and Convention"). Differences between the political programs of Presbyterians and Independents. Strengthening the position of independents in parliament at the second stage of the civil war. "Bill of Self-Denial" of the Long Parliament (1644). End of the first civil war. Development of public discussion about the nature of state power. Formation of the English political and legal doctrine of the absolutist state (R. Filmer, T. Hobbes). Ideas of popular sovereignty and republican government in the works of D. Milton and J. Harrington.

Strengthening the power of the independents after the first civil war. Activation of the leveler movement. John Lilburn. Political discussion between Independents and Levellers - problems of further development of the revolution. "Chapters of Proposals" and "People's Agreement". Army Conference at Putney (1647). Second Civil War (1648). The trial of Charles I and the execution of the king. Proclamation of the Republic. Diggers. D. Winstanley. Domestic and foreign policy of the independent republic. Conquest of Ireland. War with Scotland. Navigation Act 1651 War with Holland. The growth of authoritarian tendencies in the political life of England. "Pride Purge" The rebirth of a “new model” army. Cromwell's Protectorate. Formation of the Small Parliament and its political orientation. "The Instrument of Control" (1653). Religious policy of the protectorate. Transition to a policy of protectionism. Internal contradictions and the collapse of the protectorate regime.

Stuart Restoration. Results and historical significance of the revolution. Reasons for the Restoration. Transformation of the political and legal system of England. Declaration of Breda by Charles II (1660). Political and religious repression. Maintaining continuity in the field of economic policy. Intensification of English colonial expansion. The persistence of the conflict between absolutism and civil society. Discussion about the adoption of the “Declaration of Toleration” (1672). The growth of the opposition movement. Registration of political groupings of Whigs and Tories. The non-parliamentary reign of Charles II and the accession to the throne of James P. Adoption of the “Declaration of Toleration” (1687). "Glorious Revolution" (1688). William of Orange (1689-1702). D. Locke's doctrine of the state - the ideology of social compromise (1688). Creation of the Westminster model of constitutional monarchy: the bill of rights (1689) and the act of dispensation (1701).

Education of the United States of America. Specifics of the socio-economic and political development of the English colonies in the 18th century. Corporate, proprietary and crown colonies. Feudal and plantation economy.

Quirenta. Act of 1763 prohibiting the colonization of the West. Development of squatterism. Customs policy of the English government towards the North American colonies. Introduction of stamp duty. "Boston Tea Party" Formation of secret revolutionary organizations. "Sons of Liberty". Townshend's laws. "Boston Massacre" 1770 Creation of "Committees of Communications".

The formation of the preconditions for the American bourgeois revolution. Formation of the North American nation. The ideology of American bourgeois society. Religious worldview. Features of the American Enlightenment, its connection with the development of the national liberation movement. Early Enlightenment - political ideas of D. Otis, D. Dickinson. The radicalization of American educational ideology from the late 60s - early 70s. The idea of ​​Home Rule. B. Franklin is the great mentor of “young capitalism” (“The Path to Wealth”, “The Science of Simpleton Richard”). S. Adams. J. Biand.

First Continental Congress in Philadelphia. Declaration of the Philadelphia Congress. The beginning and course of the war for independence. Features of the development of American socio-political thought during the War of Independence. The radical, revolutionary-democratic wing (B. Franklin, T. Paine, T. Jefferson) and the moderate, bourgeois-planter movement (A. Hamilton, D. Adams, D. Madison) in the national liberation movement. Loyalists. "Declaration of Independence". D. Washington. Democratic transformations during the war. Solution of the land issue. Entry of France, Spain, and Holland into the war. Establishment of diplomatic relations between the United States and Russia. End of the war. Terms of the peace treaty of 1783. Basic provisions of the Constitution of 1787. Institute of constitutional amendments. "Bill of rights". Results and significance of the war for independence. The development of American statehood during the presidency of D. Washington (1789-1797). Activation of US foreign policy during the presidency of D. Adams (1797-1801) and T. Jefferson (1801-1809). Expansion of the US territory. President D. Madison (1809-1817) and the deterioration of Anglo-American relations. War between the USA and Great Britain in 1812-1814. Dynamics of socio-economic development of the USA at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. Changing the social structure of American society. Specifics of the formation of capitalism “on free soil”. Continued differences in the development of the northern and southern states.

France in the 18th century. Agrarian system and the main classes of society. Stratification of the peasantry. The evolution of land relations. The crisis of the guild system and the growth of manufacturing production. Mixed type of economic system (F. Braudel). Isolation of internal regions. Difficulties in developing the domestic market and modernizing the transport communications system. France during the formation of the European system of division of labor and continental economic specialization. French colonial trade. Lagging behind England in colonial expansion.

Class system in France. The Old Order is a society of privileges. Higher and lower clergy. "Black" and "white" clergy. Stratification of the nobility. "Nobility of the sword" and "nobility of the robe". French liberal nobility at the end of the 18th century. The bourgeoisie, peasants, artisans, workers are the main social groups of the “third estate”. Sanculotherium. Paris in the second half of the 18th century. Lifestyle, social composition of the population.

French absolutist monarchy in the 18th century. Louis XV (1715-1774). Marquise de Pompadour. Methods of public administration. Financial crisis of the monarchy. Reforms by D. Lo. Changing the social basis of French absolutism. France in international relations of the mid-18th century. - foreign policy crisis of French absolutism. The War of the Polish Succession (1733-1735) and the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) - the failure of claims to European hegemony. France in the Seven Years' War (1756-1763). The first Russian-French alliance. Marquis de Chetardie at the court of Elizabeth I. The crisis of French colonial policy during the Seven Years' War.

Louis XVI (1774-1792) and Marie Antoinette. Countess du Barry. Comptroller General of Calonnes. The deepening financial crisis of the French monarchy. Turgot's reforms. "The Flour War" (1774). Necker's activities and the failure of absolutist economic reforms. "Feudal reaction". Council of Notables (1787). Foreign policy crisis of French absolutism. The position of France during the War of Independence in North America. Anglo-Prussian-French contradictions. Rapprochement with Russia and the idea of ​​the Quadruple Alliance. Count de Segur at the court of Catherine P.

Spiritual preconditions of the French bourgeois revolution. The main stages of the development of the French Enlightenment, its features. Fundamentals of the philosophical and political doctrine of the French Enlightenment: anti-feudalism, natural human rights, rationalism. Political idealism of the French Enlightenment. Enlightenment and salon political culture of the 18th century. The older generation of French educators. Philosophical views of Voltaire (F.M. Arouet). The problem of man and his place in society in the philosophical works of Voltaire. The pathos of anti-clericalism, the struggle for freedom of conscience and speech. Voltaire on the unity of freedom and equality. The political ideal of Voltaire's enlightened monarchy. The idea of ​​popular sovereignty in the political and legal concept of J. -J. Rousseau. Rousseau's ideas about the natural state of society and the origin of the state. Rousseau's Republican Ideal. Rousseau on the foundations of public education. C. Montesquieu on systems of public administration based on the principle of separation of powers. “The spirit of laws” and criticism of absolutism. Montesquieu's legal concept. The problem of the relationship between law and freedom, the objective nature of justice. “Sketch of a historical picture of the progress of the human mind” by J. Condorcet. Socio-political and philosophical ideas of the “younger enlighteners” (Bonnet, Robonet, Cabanis, Volney). Philosophical and social views of French materialists of the 18th century. "Encyclopedia". The pathos of science and progress in the works of French enlighteners. D. Diderot, P. A. Holbach, K. A. Helvetius, J. L. D'Alembert, J. O. de La Mettrie on the theory of the social contract and the origin of the state, forms of government and political freedom, history and education. “Man - a social being." Social utopia and political program of J. Mellier, T. Mably, Morelli. Economic school of physiocrats in the history of the French Enlightenment (F. Quesnay, A. Turgot).

The historical nature of the crisis of French absolutism and the main causes of the Great French Revolution. French Revolution of the 18th century. - a revolution that ends the period of manufacturing capitalism in Europe. Estates General (1789). Legal registration of the Constituent Assembly. Mirabeau. From salons to political clubs - the formation of a revolutionary elite. Breton Club. The fall of the Bastille is the beginning of the revolution.

First stage of the revolution(1789-1792). The spread of the revolution throughout the country. Political factions of the Constituent Assembly: royalists, constitutionalists and Robespierrists. National Guard. J. de Lafayette. “Night of Miracles” on August 4, 1789 is a symbol of the first stage of the revolution. Destruction of the feudal order. "Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen." Radicalization of the revolution. March on Versailles October 5, 1789 “White emigration.” Execution on the Champ de Mars. Varennes Crisis of 1791. Clubs of the French Revolution: the “French Salon” of Abbe Maury, the Club of Friends of the Monarchical Constitution of Munier, the Jacobin Club, the Cordillera Club, the Leclerc Social Club - at the origins of the multi-party system. Constitution of 1791. Features of the process of formation of the rule of law and civil society in France. Formation of a multipolar pluralistic political culture. Activities of the Legislative Assembly. Girondins. The beginning of revolutionary wars.

Second period of the revolution(1792-1793). Montagnards, Girondins and Feuillants - a revolution at a crossroads. Revolutionary Jacobin Club. M. Robespierre. J P. Marat. T. de Mericourt, M. Roland, C. Corday - female faces of the French Revolution. Uprising on August 10, 1792. Overthrow of the monarchy. Convening the National Convention and democratization of political life. The beginning of popular terror. "September Murders" 1792 "Sansculotte Democracy". Agrarian legislation of the Girondins. Organization of revolutionary defense. Victory at Valmy. Proclamation of the Republic. Execution of Louis XVI. The fate of Louis XVII.

Third period of the revolution(1793-1794). Royalist rebellion. Vendee. J. Roux and the “mad” movement. Uprisings of May 31 - June 2, 1793 and the establishment of the Jacobin dictatorship. Jacobin foreign policy. Cosmopolitan immigrants. T. Kloots. Creation of a revolutionary army. French revolutionary army: changes in strategy, tactics. Mobilization “Carnot system”. Revolutionary terror. Constitution of 1793. Agrarian legislation of the Jacobins. The evolution of the policy of “maximums”: at the origins of the ideology of social statism. De-Christianization. The split among the Jacobins: “condescending” and “ultra-revolutionaries.” Eber. Chaumette. Danton. Jacobin dictatorship and the struggle against the egalitarian and liberal tendencies of the development of the revolution. The tragedy of Robespierre. Coup of 9 Thermidor.

Fourth period of the revolution(1794-1799). Thermidor: revolution without illusions. Thermidorian reaction. Economic liberalization. Restoration in the field of morals. The “swing policy” of the Directory is a failed “rollback” of the revolution. An attempt at political liberalization. The Constitution of 1795 and changes in government. Popular uprisings in the spring of 1795 G. Babeuf. Coronation of Louis XVIII. Irreconcilable emigration. Wars of the Directory. The doctrine of "natural boundaries". "Daughter republics" of France. Generals Moreau and Jourdan. General Bonaparte. Italian campaign and Egyptian expedition of Bonaparte. Colonial policy of France in the era of revolutionary wars. Formation of the Colonial Council (1789) and the question of the abolition of slavery. The principle of political assimilation of the colonies according to the constitution of 1793. Defeat in the West Indies. Coup d'etat of the 18th Brumaire (November 9, 1799).

Main features and significance of the Great French Bourgeois Revolution. The influence of the revolution on French political culture: the affirmation of the principle of multi-partyism, the polarity of political ideology, the pathos of political violence. The formation of the basic principles of bourgeois law (unification of legislation, reform of administrative and criminal law). The ideas of the “Declaration of the Rights and Freedoms of the Citizen” in French constitutionalism of the 19th-20th centuries. Separation of the bureaucracy as a guarantor of state stability. Prerequisites for the formation of an authoritarian national political ideology.